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AMERICAN  EDUCATION  SERIES 
GEORGE  DRA  YTON  STRA  YER,  GENERAL  EDITOR 


AMERICAN  EDUCATION  SERIES 
GEORGE  DRAYTON  STRAYER.  GENERAL  EDITOR 


EVERY   TEACHER'S 
PROBLEMS 


BY 

WILLIAM  E.  STARK 

SUPERINTENDENT   OF   SCHOOLS 
HACKENSACK,   N.   J. 


AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 

BOSTON  ATLANTA 


COPYRIGHT,  192?, 

BY  AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY 
A  I.  rights  reserved 


EVERY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEMS 
E.F.      7 


MADE   IN   U.   S. 


LB 
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Si  3 

F)       J 

EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

BOOKS  dealing  with  the  technic  of  teaching  have  almost 
invariably  emphasized  the  importance  of  the  inductive 
method.  These  same  books  have  commonly  proposed 
certain  principles  based  upon  psychology,  and  have  sought 
to  indicate  the  validity  of  these  generalizations  by  more 
or  less  pertinent  illustrations ;  but  they  have  been  almost 
wholly  deductive  in  their  method  of  dealing  with  the 
principles  of  teaching.  The  author  of  this  book  has  em- 
ployed the  inductive  method  in  his  discussion  of  every 
teacher's  problems. 

The  solution  of  problems  has  been  urged  as  a  method  of 
stimulating  the  intellectual  life  of  pupils,  but  the  questions 
appearing  in  the  pedagogical  treatises  have  seldom  involved 
the  more  difficult  situations  with  which  teachers  have  to 
deal  every  day  of  their  professional  life.  In  this  book  the 
author  proposes  many  problems  that  have  actually  re- 
quired solution  as  a  part  of  the  day's  work.  He  has  so 
grouped  them  that  one  is  able  to  arrive  at  certain  gener- 
alizations or  statements  of  principle  as  a  result  of  thinking 
through  carefully  the  successful  solutions  proposed.  The 
book  will  prove  most  helpful  because  of  the  reality  of  the 
issues  discussed.  It  cannot  fail  to  be  intellectually  stimu- 
lating because  it  is  an  embodiment  of  sound  pedagogical 
procedure. 

Out  of  a  rich  experience  in  teaching,  supervision,  and  ad- 
ministration Mr.  Stark  has  brought  together  problems 


6  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

dealing  with  the  technic  of  teaching,  with  discipline,  and 
with  social  relationships  which  occur  in  every  teacher's 
life.  The  suggestions  which  grow  out  of  the  proposed 
solution  of  problems  occurring  in  the  classroom  are  supple- 
mented by  discussions  of  the  relation  of  teachers  to  super- 
visors, to  parents,  to  the  community,  and  to  the  profession 
in  which  he  serves. 

One  is  convinced  as  he  reads  the  text  that  not  only  are 
the  problems  themselves  real,  but  that  the  solutions  pro- 
posed and  the  discussion  provided  are  genuine.  Teachers 
of  limited  experience  will  gain  much  from  reading  the  dis- 
cussion of  their  most  difficult  problems  as  developed  by 
experienced  teachers.  Those  who  have  been  longer  in  the 
profession  will  find  much  that  is  helpful  in  the  varying 
points  of  view  expressed  and  in  the  sane  and  well-matured 
conclusions  which  are  presented  by  the  author.  No  one 
can  read  the  book  sympathetically  and  fail  to  respond  to 
the  plea  which  it  makes  for  a  higher  type  of  professional 
service. 

GEORGE  D.  STRAYER. 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  an  attempt  to  help  teachers  to  acquire  a 
professional  attitude  toward  their  work  and  to  grow  in 
professional  knowledge  and  skill.  Its  distinctive  feature 
is  its  method  of  developing  principles  through  the  study 
of  concrete  situations. 

The  body  of  each  chapter  consists  of  an  account  of  the 
active  process  of  solution  of  typical  cases,  in  which  teachers, 
principals,  superintendents,  and  parents  take  part.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  reader  will  join  the  group,  answering  the 
arguments  presented  by  the  actors  in  each  little  educational 
drama  and  making  his  own  contribution  to  the  discussion. 

Following  the  development  of  each  series  of  typical  prob- 
lems, comes  an  explicit  statement  of  the  principles  which 
have  appeared  implicitly  in  the  course  of  the  solutions. 
These  statements  are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  rules  to  be 
learned  but  as  suggestions  to  be  studied  critically.  It 
would  be  well  for  the  reader  to  make  his  own  formulation 
of  principles  before  reading  those  given  in  the  book  and  to 
use  the  latter  for  comparison  with  the  results  of  his  inde- 
pendent thinking. 

At  the  end  of  each  chapter  is  given  a  series  of  problems, 
taken  from  various  departments  of  the  school,  which  the 
reader  should  work  out  for  himself.  He  should  do  this 
carefully,  testing  his  proposals  in  the  light  of  his  princi- 
ples, and  questioning  the  soundness  of  each  step  in  his  so- 
lution. One  problem  to  which  the  reader  has  devoted  his 

7 


8  PREFACE 

best  thought  will  be  more  valuable  than  a  dozen  treated 
superficially. 

The  reader  must  bear  in  mind  that  other  solutions  are 
possible  besides  those  suggested.  In  many  cases  it  is  im- 
possible to  tell  with  certainty  what  is  the  best  solution. 
The  problems  as  stated  do  not  give  the  whole  situation. 
Even  if  a  given  problem  were  before  us  in  the  form  of  the 
actors  themselves,  instead  of  a  mere  verbal  statement,  we 
should  not  have  the  whole  situation  unless  we  knew  every- 
thing about  the  people  concerned  and  everything  about 
their  environment  which  might  possibly  have  a  bearing  on 
the  case.  Thus  to  state  the  situation  completely  would  be 
an  enormously  complicated  matter,  even  if  one  could  have 
the  necessary  knowledge.  Consequently  the  solution  of  a 
problem  will  depend  partly  upon  factors  which  are  not 
stated,  but  which  are  assumed  by  the  person  who  attempts 
to  solve  it.  If  the  additional  factors  assumed  by  two  per- 
sons are  different,  their  solutions  will  be  likely  to  differ. 
For  example,  in  Problem  5  (page  26),  if  a  person  assumes 
that  the  teacher  of  the  higher  grade  has  a  very  strong 
spirit  of  service  and  plenty  of  endurance,  he  may  regard  it 
as  the  best  plan  to  promote  the  boy  on  trial  and  let  this 
teacher  give  him  a  great  deal  of  individual  instruction. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  he  assumes  crowded  classes  and  in- 
experienced teachers,  his  solution  may  be  quite  different. 

Let  nobody  suppose  that  all  the  problems  given  in  this 
book  will  be  completely  solved.  Many  of  them  will  con- 
tinue to  be  problems  as  long  as  there  are  children  to  be 
educated  and  human  nature  remains  complex  and  variable. 
But  they  are  all  problems  which  teachers  have  to  face. 
We  shall  have  to  do  something  about  them.  If  we  learn 


PREFACE  9 

to  deal  with  them  more  wisely,  regarding  our  own  solutions 
not  as  final  but  as  the  most  promising  plans  which  we  can 
devise  with  our  present  knowledge  —  tentative  steps  to 
be  tried  and  improved  as  we  gain  more  light  —  we  shall  be 
making  progress  toward  a  real  educational  profession. 

The  author  would  like  to  make  sincere  acknowledgment 
to  those  who  have  helped,  but  he  finds  it  impracticable  to 
mention  them  by  name.  Without  doubt  those  who  have 
contributed  most  to  whatever  merit  the  book  may  possess 
are  the  pupils,  teachers,  principals,  supervisors,  and  par- 
ents with  whom  the  author  has  worked  during  the  past 
twenty-odd  years,  who  have  taught  him  many  things 
about  human  nature,  and  who  have  given  him  constant 
stimulation,  by  example  or  encouragement  or  challenge, 
in  his  efforts  to  solve  his  own  problems. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    SOME  PRELIMINARY  TRIALS  AT  PROBLEM  SOLVING       .      13' 
Some  General  Principles 

II.     PROBLEMS  OF  DISCIPLINE 30 

Rules  and  Punishments 

III.  PROBLEMS  OF  DISCIPLINE 41 

Child  Nature  and  Habit  Formation 

IV.  PROBLEMS  OF  DISCIPLINE 57 

The  Child's  Attitude ;  Self-Direction ;  Ideals 
V.    PROBLEMS  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER 78 

Selection  of  Educational  Material ;  Relation  of  Sub- 
ject Matter  to  Purpose;  Making  a  Course  of 
Study ;  How  to  Test  the  Value  of  Subject  Matter 

VI.    PROBLEMS  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER 116 

Appropriateness  of  Material  for  Children  of  Various 
Grades ;  Differentiation  of  Subject  Matter 

VII.     PROBLEMS  OF  METHOD 134 

Relation  of  Method  to  Purpose ;  the  Socialized  Reci- 
tation ;  the  Common  Recitation  ;  the  Project  Method 

VIII.    PROBLEMS  DUE  TO  VARIATIONS  IN  ABILITY  OF  PUPILS     167 
Language  Handicap ;    Group  Teaching ;  Rapid  Pro- 
motions 

IX.    PROBLEMS  INVOLVING  ECONOMY  OF  TIME    .        .        .186 
Distinguishing  the  Important  from  the  Non-Essen- 
tial ;  Efficiency  and  System ;  the  Value  of  Planning 


CONTENTS  I I 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

X.    PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 212 

Hygiene  at  School  and  at  Home;  the  Teacher's 
Responsibility;  Cooperation  with  Parents;  the 
Influence  of  Example 

XI.    PROBLEMS  OF  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  SUPERVISORS          .     229 
Purpose  of  Supervision ;  the  Teacher  and  the  Super- 
visor; Cooperation 

XII.    PROBLEMS   OF    RELATIONSHIP    WITH  ADMINISTRATIVE 

OFFICERS 251 

Accepting  Criticism ;  Cooperation  with  Superintend- 
ent; Assignment  to  Posts;  Contracts 

XIII.  PROBLEMS  OF  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  OTHER  TEACHERS    277 

Jealousy  and  Prejudice ;  Mutual  Help ;  Teamwork 

XIV.  PROBLEMS  OF  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS         .        .     296 

Cooperation ;  the  Face-to-Face  Method ;  the  Child 
Labor  Problem ;  Educating  Parents 

XV.    PROBLEMS  OF  PROFESSIONAL  GROWTH          .        .        .318 
Keeping  out  of  the  Ruts ;  Learning  the  Trade ;  the 
N.  E.  A. ;  Making  Teaching  Respectable 

XVI.    THE  TEACHER  AS  PROBLEM-SOLVER      ....    351 
Recognition  of  Problems;   the   Problem  Method  of 
Teaching 

INDEX 361 


EVERY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEMS 

CHAPTER   I 
SOME  PRELIMINARY  TRIALS  AT   PROBLEM  SOLVING 

SOME  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

PROBLEM  1.  —  A  boy  has  been  very  troublesome  in  school.  He 
is  lazy  and  often  impudent;  occasionally  plays  truant;  has 
given  trouble  in  previous  grades.  His  teacher,  Miss  A.,  de- 
clares that  he  is  a  nuisance  and  ought  to  be  expelled.  The 
principal  takes  the  case  up  in  teachers'  meeting  and  asks  teachers 
for  their  views. 

SEVERAL  teachers  agree  with  Miss  A.  that  the  boy  should 
be  expelled  for  the  good  of  the  school.  One  asks  what  is 
to  become  of  him  after  expulsion  and  another  replies  with 
some  heat  that  that  is  "up  to  his  parents  " ;  he  has  had 
his  chance  and  thrown  it  away ;  the  school  has  no  further 
responsibility. 

One  teacher  says  that  expulsion  will  please  the  boy,  that 
what  he  needs  is  something  that  will  hurt  him.  She  thinks 
he  ought  to  be  thrashed  soundly.  At  this  Miss  B.,  who 
has  tried  several  times  to  speak  but  has  stopped  modestly 
as  other  more  forceful  spirits  claimed  attention,  jumps  to 
her  feet  and,  in  a  voice  shaking  with  excitement,  cries  out : 
"He  is  thrashed  unmercifully  every  day  of  his  life  except 
when  he  runs  away.  I  had  him  in  my  class  last  year  and 
I  know  what  his  home  is  like." 

13 


14  SOME   PRELIMINARY  TRIALS 

In  response  to  the  principal's  inquiry  as  to  what  she  would 
advise,  Miss  B.  replies:  "I  am  not  sure  what  is  best, but 
I  am  sure  that  thrashing  will  accomplish  absolutely  nothing 
with  that  boy  except  to  make  him  more  bitter,  and  I  know 
that  if  he  is  turned  out  of  school  to  run  the  streets,  he  will 
become  a  criminal  in  a  very  short  time.  It  may  not  be 
possible  to  save  him.  It  seems  almost  impossible  to  get 
behind  the  sullen,  silent  opposition  with  which  he  meets 
every  advance.  He  apparently  is  at  war  with  the  whole 
world,  and  after  seeing  his  home,  I  can  understand  this 
state  of  mind.  Once  or  twice  I  succeeded  in  getting  him  to 
respond  a  little  to  my  efforts  to  be  friendly,  and  I  think 
that  if  one  could  gradually  win  his  confidence  and  be  patient 
with  him,  it  might  be  possible  to  make  a  man  of  him." 

The  principal  says :  "We  have  a  number  of  very  different 
opinions.  Let  us  see  if  we  can  agree  on  any  factors  in  the 
case.  The  ideas  which  you  have  expressed  are  these : 

1.  The  boy's  conduct  is  a  detriment  to  the  school,  and 
he  should  therefore  be  expelled. 

2.  He  deserves  no  consideration  because  he  has  shown 
no  appreciation  of  the  opportunities  afforded  him. 

3.  The  school  has  no  responsibility  for  his  future  since 
he  has  defied  its  efforts  in  his  behalf. 

4.  He  should  be  made  to  suffer  for  his  transgressions. 

5.  His  behavior  seems  to  be  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  his 
environment  outside  the  school. 

6.  He  is  in  a  fair  way  to  become  a  menace  to  the  com- 
munity. 

7.  There  is  a  possibility  of  making  a  good  citizen  of  him 
through  methods  adapted  to  his  own  peculiar  nature. 

Let  me  now  propose  some  questions : 


SOME   GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  15 

1.  If  it  should  prove  to  be  impossible  to  keep  the  boy  in 
school  without  injury  to  the  other  pupils,  should  we  be 
justified  in  excluding  him?" 

There  is  general  assent,  one  teacher  remarking:  "The 
greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number." 

2.  "Where  does  our  responsibility  to  the  boy  and  his 
parents  end  ?  " 

After  some  discussion,  the  teachers  agree  on  the  answer : 
"When  we  have  done  everything  that  we  can  to  help  him 
to  make  the  most  of  himself." 

3.  "Has  the  community  any  interest  in  the  matter?" 
The  conclusion  is  easily  reached  that  it  is  important  for 

the  community  that  the  boy  shall  become  as  good  a  citizen 
as  he  is  capable  of  becoming. 

4.  "Should  the  treatment  of  the  boy  be  influenced  by  a 
desire  to  pay  him  back  for  the  trouble  which  he  has  caused 
or  for  his  insulting  behavior  toward  us?" 

All  agree  that  this  should  not  be  done,  although  it  would 
be  in  accord  with  one's  natural  impulse.  One  teacher 
suggests  that  the  boy  should  be  regarded  as  a  sick  person, 
an  interesting,  if  exasperating,  case  and  that  teachers  should 
look  upon  his  behavior  as  a  symptom  of  his  moral  ill-health, 
in  no  way  humiliating  to  the  physician  who  is  treating  him. 

5.  "Can  we  use  a  standard  method  in  dealing  with  this 
case?" 

There  is  a  chorus  of  "Noes."  Miss  B.  says:  "No  two 
children  are  alike.  We  have  got  to  try  to  understand  each 
one  and  use  the  method  which  will  win  response.  It  is 
the  result  that  counts." 

Miss  A.  then  says:  "I  wish  to  withdraw  my  recom- 
mendation and  try  again."  This  is  approved,  with  the 


1 6  SOME   PRELIMINARY   TRIALS 

understanding  that  if  further  effort  by  the  teacher  and  the 
principal  should  prove  ineffective,  the  boy  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  school  and  that,  in  that  case,  the  principal 
should  try  to  have  him  placed  in  an  institution  where  he 
could  be  under  proper  control  without  endangering  the 
welfare  of  others. 

PROBLEM  2.  —  The  question  arises  as  to  whether  a  girl  in  the 
senior  class  of  the  high  school  shall  be  allowed  to  graduate. 
She  has  had  to  repeat  a  number  of  subjects  and  has  spent  five 
years  in  completing  the  course.  She  has  worked  much  harder 
than  the  average  student,  but  has  had  great  difficulty  in  meeting 
the  requirements,  especially  in  mathematics  and  Latin.  In 
household  arts  courses,  her  work  has  been  exceptionally  good  and 
she  has  shown  so  much  ability  in  managing  social  affairs  that 
she  is  always  made  chairman  of  the  class  committee  in  charge 
of  such  events.  Her  final  marks  are  "excellent"  in  household 
arts  and  physical  training,  "passable"  in  English  and  history, 
and  "poor"  in  Latin. 

At  a  conference  of  the  teachers  concerned,  the  household 
arts  teacher  says  that  the  girl  is  the  best  that  her  depart- 
ment has  ever  turned  out ;  that  she  will  be  a  great  success 
as  a  homemaker  and  will  have  influence  among  the  people 
with  whom  she  associates.  The  history  teacher  says  that, 
on  the  basis  of  marks  in  recitations  and  examinations,  she 
would  not  have  passed,  but  he  has  no  doubt  that,  in  the 
duties  of  practical  citizenship,  she  will  surpass  many  of  the 
students  of  high  scholarship.  Therefore  he  has  given  her 
a  passing  mark.  The  Latin  teacher,  Miss  A.,  declares  that 
she  cannot  conscientiously  pass  this  student.  The  stand- 
ard of  the  school  must  be  considered.  If  pupils  are  gradu- 
ated merely  because  they  are  good  cooks  and  show  desirable 
moral  qualities,  the  school  will  lose  its  reputation  for  scholar- 
ship. 


SOME   GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  1 7 

The  principal  then  closes  the  conference  with  this  state- 
ment: "The  general  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  Helen 
is  entitled  to  a  diploma,  but  Miss  A.  feels  that  this  would  be 
a  serious  mistake.  The  responsibility  for  the  decision 
rests  upon  me.  I  may,  if  I  choose,  accept  the  majority 
opinion  as  most  likely  to  be  right  or  as  involving  less  of 
arbitrary  authority  on  my  part.  I  believe,  however,  that 
if  we  think  over  calmly  and  open-mindedly  what  has  been 
said,  we  shall  be  able  to  discover  some  underlying  principles 
upon  which  we  can  all  agree.  If  we  succeed,  we  shall  be 
able  to  work  together  more  effectively  and  we  shall  be 
better  able  to  solve  other  problems  as  they  arise. 

Our  differences  seem  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  we  are 
giving  different  emphasis  to  the  various  factors  in  the  case, 
in  accordance  with  different  ideals.  We  all  want  to  do  the 
right  thing  and  we  shall  be  more  confident  that  we  are  right, 
if  we  think  out  clearly  the  reasons  for  our  opinions.  I  am 
going  to  ask  you,  therefore,  to  reflect  on  these  questions 
and  to  meet  me  to-morrow  to  decide  the  matter. 

1 .  Should  the  chief  aim  of  the  school  be  to  prepare  pupils 
to  meet  college  entrance  requirements  ? 

2.  Is  the  development  of  moral  qualities  a  proper  func- 
tion of  the  school  ? 

3.  Are  academic  studies  of  more  value  than  homekeeping 
activities  for  all  girls  ? 

4.  Should  the  high  school  be  regarded  as  primarily  for 
pupils  of  the  '  academic '  type  ? 

5.  Will  the  public  interest  be  best  served  by  enforcing 
a  rigid  scholarship  standard  in  the  high  school? 

6.  What    purposes    are    served    by    the    award    of    a 
diploma  ? 

E.  T.  PROB.  —  2 


1 8  SOME   PRELIMINARY   TRIALS 

7.  Will  the  accomplishment  of  these  purposes  be  affected 
if  the  diploma  is  awarded  in  such  a  case  as  the  one  before 
us? 

8.  If  the  answer  is  '  Yes, '  will  the  public  interest  be 
best  served  by  refusing  graduation  to  this  pupil,  or  by  modi- 
fying the  plan  of  graduation  so  that  pupils  of  Helen's  type 
will  be  eligible?" 

At  the  meeting  next  day,  it  is  agreed : 

1.  The  chief  aim  of  the  school  should  be  to  help  students 
to  fit  themselves  for  the  greatest  possible  usefulness  as 
citizens.     A  secondary  aim  should  be  to  enable  candidates 
for  college  entrance  to  meet  the  requirements. 

2.  The  development  of  moral  qualities  is  an  important 
function  of  the  school.     Teachers  should  keep  this  aim  in 
mind  and  give  every  possible  encouragement  to  the  develop- 
ment of  such  qualities. 

3.  For  some  girls,  the  homekeeping  activities  are  more 
stimulating  to  growth  than  the  usual  academic  studies  of 
the  high  school.     From  the  standpoint  of  education,  the 
question  is  not  "  Which  is  the  more  worthy  subject  for 
study?  "  but  "Which  will  do  most  for  this  pupil?  " 

4.  The  high  school  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  "select" 
school.     It  should  welcome  any  pupil  whose  needs  can 
apparently  be  better  served  in  the  high  school  than  in  any 
other  accessible  institution. 

5.  A  rigidly  enforced  scholarship  standard  would  not  be 
in  the  public  interest,  since  its  effect  would  be  to  eliminate 
many  pupils  who  would  profit  by  more  education.     The 
point  is  made  that  a  flexible  standard  would  be  more  difficult 
to  administer  but  it  is  agreed  that  the  only  standard  con- 


SOME   GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  ig 

sistent  with  the  purpose  of  education  is  "the  pupil's  best." 
The  effect  ought  not  to  be  a  general  lowering  of  standard 
but  a  raising  of  the  requirements  for  the  abler  pupils. 

6.  The  diploma  has  ordinarily  been  used  as  an  incentive 
to  study  and  as  a  certificate  of  accomplishment.     It  was 
agreed,  however,  that  in  practice,  the  diploma  means  noth- 
ing very  definite  in  the  way  of  accomplishment.     Among 
those  who  receive  the  diploma  there  is  a  great  variation  in 
actual  attainment  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  a  student 
who  obtains  one  will  make  a  better  citizen  than  one  who 
does  not. 

7.  The  award  of  a  diploma  in  the  case  in  question  might 
affect  the  value  of  this  distinction  if  students  simply  gained 
the  idea  that  failure  in  a  course  or  two  would  not  interfere 
with  their  graduation,  but  would  not  do  so  if  they  realized 
that  industry  and  good  citizenship  in  school  affairs  are  as 
essential  to  graduation  as  the  receipt  of  certain  marks. 
The  award  of  a  diploma  to  a  pupil  whose  scholarship  is 
inferior  would  be  misleading  if  it  were  understood  to  be 
based  upon  scholarship  alone,  but  need  not  cause  confu- 
sion if  the  basis  of  the  award  is  clearly  stated  in  the 
document. 

8.  It  is  the  general  opinion  that  the  diploma  might 
safely  be  given  in  this  case  if  a  suitable  note  were  added  to 
the  diploma  and  a  statement  were  made  at  the  graduation 
exercises  that  graduation  is  taken  to  mean  not  merely  the 
attainment  of  a  certain  standard  of  scholarship  but  also 
the  exhibition  of  desirable  qualities  of  citizenship,  coupled 
with  earnest  effort.     It  is  felt  that  the  diploma  should, 
in  every  case,  state  as  explicitly  as  possible  the  abilities 
and  accomplishments  of  the  pupil  receiving  it. 


2O  SOME   PRELIMINARY   TRIALS 

PROBLEM  3.  —  A  teacher  of  strong  and  attractive  personality 
has  always  a  model  class,  from  the  standpoint  of  orderliness. 
Classes,  which  have  been  troublesome  with  other  teachers, 
"  eat  out  of  her  hand,"  after  the  first  half  hour.  Children 
adore  her  and  respond  to  her  slightest  wish.  After  leaving  her 
class,  they  revert  promptly  to  their  previous  habits.  She  has 
often  heard  herself  referred  to  as  a  wonderful  teacher  and  has 
received  the  grateful  tributes  of  parents.  During  a  vacation, 
she  attends  a  lecture,  in  which  the  speaker  emphasizes  the  danger 
of  relying  upon  a  dominating  personality  in  the  education  of 
children.  He  says  that  such  a  teacher  ought  not  to  estimate 
the  results  of  her  work  by  the  conduct  of  the  children  while  they 
are  under  her  influence,  but  by  what  they  do  after  they  leave 
her.  This  sets  her  thinking. 

After  a  time,  she  writes  to  a  friend  :  "I  have  been  through 
a  week  of  heart-searching  and  humiliation.  I  see  clearly 
that,  instead  of  the  paragon  that  people  have  called  me,  I 
have  been  a  downright  failure.  It  has  always  been  so  easy 
to  get  anything  that  I  wanted  from  the  children,  that  I 
have  allowed  myself  to  make  puppets  of  them  and  have 
become  famous  for  my  skill  in  pulling  the  strings.  Bless 
the  man  who  showed  me  what  I  was  doing!  I  am  eager 
to  get  back  to  work  and  see  whether  I  can  do  some  real 
teaching. 

I  am  going  to  try  desperately  to  give  my  boys  and 
girls  something  'for  keeps.'  I  have  got  to  lead  them  to 
think,  to  have  ideas  of  right  and  wrong,  and  to  learn  to 
decide  things  for  themselves,  instead  of  doing  whatever  they 
think  will  please  me.  Children  like  me,  and  therefore  it 
ought  not  to  be  impossible  to  interest  them  in  ideas  that 
I  believe  in.  The  problem  will  be  to  interest  them  in  the 
ideas  themselves  and  in  their  own  power  to  think  and 
act." 


SOME   GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  21 

PROBLEM  4.  —  The  course  of  study  in  a  city  school  system  calls 
for  the  teaching  of  the  parts  of  speech  in  the  fifth  grade.  A 
teacher  becomes  very  much  discouraged  over  the  results  of  her 
efforts  to  carry  out  the  requirement.  Most  of  the  children 
manage  to  learn  the  definitions,  but  only  a  few  seem  to  grasp 
the  ideas  clearly.  With  the  exception  of  the  few  who  do  well 
and  enjoy  a  sense  of  superiority,  the  children  show  little  interest 
and  quickly  become  inattentive.  The  teacher  sees  an  article 
in  an  educational  magazine  in  which  the  writer  declares  that 
grammar  has  no  place  in  the  elementary  school.  This  comforts 
her  until  she  mentions  it  to  the  superintendent,  who  retorts  with 
much  emphasis  that  grammar  is  the  best  means  of  mental  train- 
ing in  the  curriculum.  He  advises  more  drill. 

The  teacher  decides  that  she  will  not  be  "stumped"  by 
this  problem.  She  goes  to  the  library  and  looks  up  all  the 
references  that  she  can  find  on  the  teaching  of  grammar. 
The  doctors  disagree  but  the  most  convincing  articles  all 
take  the  position  that  much  of  the  grammar  which  is  ordi- 
narily taught  in  the  elementary  school  serves  no  useful  pur- 
pose. The  teacher  can  think  of  no  ground  for  disputing 
the  contention  that  grammar  in  the  elementary  school 
should  be  limited  to  facts  and  principles  which  will  actually 
help  children  to  speak  or  write  better  English  or  under- 
stand better  what  they  read.  She  reads  accounts  of  some 
tests  in  which  children  who  had  studied  grammar  showed 
no  superiority  in  these  abilities  over  those  who  had  not. 

She  then  visits  the  classes  of  several  fifth-grade  teachers 
whose  work  has  been  highly  recommended.  In  some  of 
these  classes,  she  sees  grammatical  work  of  the  same  type 
as  her  own,  and  observes  some  teaching  devices  which  inter- 
est her.  She  notices,  however,  that  many  of  the  children 
exhibit  the  same  lack  of  interest  and  failure  to  understand 
grammatical  ideas  as  her  own  pupils.  In  one  class,  the  work 


22  SOME   PRELIMINARY   TRIALS 

is  of  an  entirely  different  character.  When  she  arrives, 
the  children  are  about  to  write  a  story.  They  discuss 
their  plans  orally  and  a  few  tell  their  stories.  The  class 
offers  criticism  and  the  teacher  puts  in  an  occasional  ques- 
tion. There  is  vigorous  discussion  upon  the  selection  of 
words  which  will  best  express  the  meaning  and  give  the 
reader  the  clearest  picture  of  the  characters  and  the  action 
of  the  story.  Our  teacher  is  interested  to  see  that,  while 
there  is  no  mention  of  parts  of  speech,  the  children  seem 
to  understand  the  function  of  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs, 
and  use  them  far  more  skillfully  than  any  other  class  which 
she  has  visited.  She  notices  especially  the  keen  interest 
and  active  participation  of  everybody.  When  the  stories 
are  completed,  she  is  permitted  to  examine  all  of  them. 
She  is  surprised  to  find  that  there  are  fewer  grammatical 
errors  than  her  own  children  make  after  all  her  drill,  and 
she  is  amazed  at  the  freedom  of  expression,  choice  of  words, 
and  variety  of  ideas. 

At  the  close  of  the  session,  she  asks  the  other  teacher  for 
a  brief  conference,  explains  her  own  difficulties,  and  begs 
to  know  how  such  results  as  she  has  seen  can  be  obtained. 
The  other  teacher  says:  "I  think  I  understand  the  diffi- 
culty because  I  have  been  through  the  same  experience. 
I  have  tried  the  drill  method  and  convinced  myself  that  it 
is  a  failure  in  teaching  little  children  to  speak  and  write. 
It  is  attempting  to  force  the  thoughts  of  adults  upon  minds 
which  have  no  capacity  for  absorbing  them.  A  few  excep- 
tional children  grasp  the  ideas  but  in  most  cases  the  result 
is  mere  parrot  imitation,  with  no  effect  upon  the  use  of 
English. 

Children  like  to  do  things  and  love  to  express  themselves 


SOME    GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  23 

when  they  have  something  to  say.  They  have  vivid  imag- 
inations when  you  give  them  a  chance.  On  the  other  hand 
they  have  little  or  no  interest  in  analysis.  That  will  come 
later,  for  some  of  them  at  least.  What  we  teachers  need 
to  do  is  not  to  take  our  own  thoughts  and  methods  of  work 
and  attempt  to  drill  them  into  the  children,  but  to  study 
the  children  themselves,  see  what  interests  them  most, 
and  show  them  how  to  improve  their  work.  Then  we  are 
working  'with  the  grain,'  not  against  it. 

One  secret  of  success  with  children  of  this  age  which  the 
'  drill  teacher '  is  apt  to  overlook  is  not  to  keep  them  work- 
ing on  the  same  thing  too  long.  When  the  children  began 
to  get  restless,  I  used  to  'prod'  them,  call  for  attention, 
and  impose  punishments.  But  the  plan  never  worked. 
Now  when  I  notice  any  flagging  of  attention,  I  quickly 
change  to  some  other  kind  of  work  for  a  time.  The  result 
is  that  far  more  is  accomplished  because  the  children  are 
working  hard  with  me  instead  of  offering  more  or  less  pas- 
sive resistance. 

This  study  of  children  is  a  fascinatirg  occupation,  in- 
finitely more  interesting  than  hearing  recitations  of  text- 
book lessons.  No  one,  I  think,  has  very  exact  knowledge 
of  child  nature  as  yet,  but  a  lot  of  progress  is  being  made  by 
teachers  who  take  a  scientific  attitude  toward  their  work. 
The  classroom  teacher  has  the  best  possible  opportunity  for 
observation  and  experiment,  and  I  am  trying  to  get  a  little 
new  light  every  year." 

Our  teacher  says  to  herself  on  her  way  home :  "I  think 
I  see  the  way  out  of  my  difficulty,  if  Mr.  Jones  will  let  me 
try  a  different  plan  of  teaching  English." 

But  Mr.  Jones,  as  she  says,  is  another  problem. 


24  SOME  PRELIMINARY  TRIALS 

METHOD  OF  SOLUTION 

We  have  now  taken  up  several  problems  and  suggested 
the  ways  in  which  teachers  attempted  to  work  them  out. 
In  none  of  the  cases  was  a  complete,  final  solution  reached, 
but  a  better  understanding  of  the  problem  was  gained  and 
a  tentative  solution  arrived  at,  to  be  tested  by  experiment. 
This  method  will  be  found  applicable  to  most  school  prob- 
lems. Education  has  not  become  a  science  and  it  is  un- 
safe to  be  dogmatic.  Conclusions  should  be  accepted 
tentatively,  to  be  tested  by  experience  and  modified  as 
new  knowledge  is  gained. 

In  most  of  the  problems,  the  particular  questions  have 
suggested  more  general  ones  and  the  answers  given  have 
depended  upon  general  ideas  or  convictions.  These  general 
ideas  are  not  axioms.  They  are  beliefs  rather  than  scien- 
tific principles,  and  must  be  given  up  if  experience  shows 
them  to  be  invalid.  They  represent,  however,  our  best 
thought  on  the  subject,  not  mere  opinion,  but  judgments 
based  on  all  our  present  knowledge.  We  must  make  use 
of  such  general  ideas,  for  otherwise  every  problem  which 
arises  must  be  worked  out  anew.  When  we  acquire  general 
ideas  to  which  we  can  refer  our  specific  problems,  and  by 
hard  thinking  we  succeed  in  tying  them  together  into  a 
consistent  view  of  the  educational  field  with  which  we  are 
acquainted,  we  have  a  philosophy  of  education.  Then 
we  are  not  obliged  to  base  our  opinions  merely  upon  tra- 
dition or  fashion  or  authority.  Our  views  depend  upon 
fundamental  ideas  which  we  have  thought  about  and  believe 
in,  and  which  we  can  defend. 

Our  trial  problems  have  brought  out  some  fundamental 
principles,  that  is,  they  are  fundamental  in  the  author's 


SOME   GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  2$ 

philosophy,  and  are  a  constant  guide  to  him  in  his  solution 
of  problems.  They  are  stated  more  explicitly  below. 
The  reader  does  not  need  to  accept  them ;  in  fact,  should 
not  do  so  without  questioning  them  thoughtfully.  He 
should,  however,  formulate  principles  of  his  own.  After 
studying  the  principles,  rejecting  and  substituting  as  much 
as  he  needs  to  do  in  order  to  be  consistent  with  himself, 
he  ought  to  be  prepared  to  attack  the  problems  which  follow. 

PRINCIPLES  FOR  THE  GUIDANCE  OF  THE  TEACHER 
IN  THE  SOLUTION  OF  PROBLEMS 

1 .  The  purpose  of  education  should  be  kept  in  mind  at  all 
times.     The  solution  of  any  problem  should  be  consistent 
with  this  purpose. 

2.  The  purpose  of  education  is  to  secure  the  develop- 
ment of  each  individual  to  the  greatest  degree  of  happiness 
and  usefulness  of  which  he  is  capable.     The  happiness  of 
the  individual  and  his  usefulness  to  society  will  often  con- 
flict unless  the  individual  comes  to  accept  the  public  welfare 
as  a  dominating  ideal.     The  teacher  should  aim  to  culti- 
vate in  the  pupil  a  desire  to  make  the  most  of  himself  for 
the  common  good.     As  the  pupil  acquires  this  ideal,  the 
process  of  education  should  become  one  of  cooperation 
between  the  teacher  and  the  pupil. 

3.  The  success  of  the  teacher,  in  the  light  of  the  pur- 
pose of  education  stated  above,  will  depend  upon  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  nature  of  the  child,  the  laws  of  child  develop- 
ment, and  the  needs  of  society,  as  well  as  upon  his  skill 
in  dealing  with  children.     The  teacher's  professional  study 
should  therefore  include  child  study,  sociology,   and   the 
art  of  teaching. 


26  SOME   PRELIMINARY   TRIALS 

4.  The  teacher  should  aim  to  make  himself  a  scientific 
worker  in  the  public  service.  He  should  take  an  objective 
rather  than  a  personal  attitude  toward  his  work  and  to- 
ward the  people  with  whom  his  work  brings  him  into  con- 
tact. If  he  himself  believes  strongly  in  the  ideals  of  the 
public  welfare  and  the  progress  of  humanity,  he  will  not 
be  disheartened  or  made  bitter  by  misunderstanding  or  lack 
of  appreciation.  He  will  regard  such  behavior  as  defects 
of  human  nature,  or  individual  development,  or  public 
sentiment,  —  a  stage  in  the  progress  of  humanity,  to  be 
regarded  objectively,  to  be  "allowed  for"  as  one  allows  for 
a  head  wind  or  a  muddy  road,  to  be  overcome  as  far  as 
possible,  but  not  to  be  resented  or  combated  or  despised 
as  a  personal  affront.  If  the  teacher  is  seriously  concerned 
with  the  best  possible  development  of  the  children  in  his 
class,  he  will  think  of  them  as  imperfect  growing  plants  to 
be  nurtured.  He  will  not  be  discouraged  or  made  angry 
if  some  of  them  are  lazy  or  troublesome  or  dishonest.  He 
will  take  such  characteristics  as  signs  of  defect,  to  be  studied 
and  removed  if  possible.  He  will  not  be  relieved  when  a 
boy  is  sent  to  reform  school,  although  he  may  try  to  have 
the  boy  sent  there  for  his  own  good.  He  will  be  dissatisfied 
when,  and  only  when,  a  pupil  has  failed  to  make  the  prog- 
ress of  which  he  was  apparently  capable. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  6.  —  A  pupil  is  older  than  the  other  children  in  the 
class,  but  does  very  poor  work  in  most  subjects.  Although  he 
has  already  repeated  the  grade,  his  average  for  the  year  falls 
below  the  passing  mark.  Outside  of  school,  he  plays  with  boys 
of  higher  grades  and  is  a  leader  arnonn;  them.  He  makes  a  good 
deal  of  money  by  selling  papers  and  doing  odd  jobs.  The 


PROBLEMS   TO   BE  SOLVED  27 

teacher  feels  that  he  does  not  belong  with  the  younger  children 
but  does  not  see  how  she  can  properly  promote  him.  She  fears 
that,  if  she  does  so,  the  teacher  of  the  higher  grade  will  criticize 
her. 

PROBLEM  6.  —  A  teacher  receives  the  following  note : 

Miss  Jones : 

You  have  done  a  very  mean  thing  to  my  daughter. 
She  came  home  all  in  a  tremble  and  she  does  nothing  but  cry. 
She  knows  you  don't  like  her  and  so  you  did  not  promote  her 
for  spite.  She  has  worked  very  hard  and  she  has  a  right  to  be 
promoted.  I  shall  see  that  she  gets  her  rights.  How  do  you 
know  what  she  can  do  when  you  never  call  on  her?  You  can 
rest  assured  that  she  will  never  return  to  your  class.  I  shall 
send  her  to  another  school  first.  This  matter  will  be  taken 
to  the  board  of  education. 

Mrs.  John  J.  Anderson 

PROBLEM  7.  —  A  boy  in  the  third  year  of  high  school,  who  has 
exceptional  ability,  announces  to  the  teacher  that  he  is  about 
to  leave  school,  to  take  a  position  in  a  business  office.  The 
teacher  calls  on  the  boy's  mother  to  urge  that  he  continue  his 
education.  The  mother  says  that  she  had  expected  to  send  him 
to  college,  but  when  a  friend,  who  is  a  partner  in  a  very  lucrative 
business,  offered  to  give  him  a  position,  and  assured  her  that 
the  boy  would  have  an  opportunity  to  make  far  more  money 
than  he  could  earn  in  a  profession,  she  thought  it  too  good  a 
chance  to  miss. 

PROBLEM  8.  —  A  board  of  education,  finding  it  necessary  to 
raise  teachers'  salaries,  and  fearing  the  criticism  which  a  large 
increase  in  taxes  is  likely  to  cause,  discusses  various  plans  of 
retrenchment.  Among  the  proposals  are  elimination  of  kinder- 
garten classes,  reduction  of  the  number  of  teachers  with  increase 
in  the  size  of  classes,  and  elimination  of  manual  training.  The 
board  appoints  an  evening  for  a  public  hearing  on  the  proposals 
and  invites  teachers  especially  to  give  their  views. 

PROBLEM  9.  —  The  principal  of  a  school  urges  the  introduction 
of  manual  activities,  and  proposes  that  teachers  prepare  them- 


28  SOME  PRELIMINARY   TRIALS 

selves  for  the  work.  Some  of  the  teachers  oppose  the  plan  on 
the  ground  that  it  will  make  a  great  deal  of  extra  work.  They 
start  a  petition  asking  the  board  of  education  not  to  approve 
the  scheme,  and  all  but  one  of  the  teachers  sign.  This  teacher 
says  that,  before  she  commits  herself,  she  wants  to  be  sure  that 
she  is  doing  the  right  thing.  She  will  think  the  matter  over 
until  the  next  day  and  will  then  either  sign  or  give  her  reasons 
for  not  doing  so. 

PROBLEM  10.  —  A  new  teacher  is  assigned  to  a  school  in  which 
there  are  many  children  of  foreign  parentage,  coming  from  poor 
homes.  Some  of  them  are  dirty  and  ill-mannered.  Her  room- 
mate, who  teaches  in  a  school  where,  she  says,  there  is  "  a  nice 
class  of  children,"  asks:  "Why  don't  you  ask  the  superintend- 
ent to  transfer  you  to  another  school?  " 

PROBLEM  11.  —  A  boy  in  one  of  the  upper  grades  makes  little 
effort  during  the  practice  periods  in  penmanship.  The  teacher 
tries  to  "  stir  him  up  "  and  frequently  keeps  him  after  school 
for  practice.  He  says  that  he  doesn't  see  any  use  in  everlast- 
ingly making  circles  and  writing  words  over  and  over,  that  he 
can  write  well  enough  when  he  feels  like  it.  The  teacher  retorts 
that  it  is  not  his  place  to  say  what  he  should  do  in  school,  that 
he  will  have  to  do  the  regular  work  and  might  as  well  make  up 
his  mind  to  it.  She  works  very  hard  and  continues  to  keep  him 
after  school,  but  his  writing  does  not  improve. 

PROBLEM  12.  —  A  teacher  is  given  the  opportunity  to  select 
some  new  reading  material  for  her  class.  The  principal  merely 
stipulates  that  she  shall  give  reasons  for  her  choice. 

PROBLEM  13.  —  A  high  school  teacher  has  a  class  which  he  says 
is  the  dullest  one  that  he  has  ever  had.  Several  of  the  students 
drop  out  during  the  term  and  two  thirds  of  them  fail  in  the 
term's  work.  He  doesn't  see  why  such  people  should  be  allowed 
to  come  to  high  school. 

PROBLEM  14.  —  A  high  school  teacher  is  dissatisfied  with  the  poor 
recitations  made  by  her  pupils.  They  are  inclined  to  give  mono- 
syllabic replies.  She  constantly  asks  questions  and  frequently 
feels  obliged  to  interpret  pupils'  answers  so  that  the  class  will 


PROBLEMS   TO   BE   SOLVED  29 

understand  what  was  meant.  She  visits  a  class  in  another 
school  in  which  the  pupils  take  a  very  active  part  in  the  class 
exercise.  They  engage  in  very  vigorous  discussion,  while  the 
teacher,  who  sits  in  the  back  of  the  room,  speaks  rarely.  Our 
teacher  wishes  that  she  could  have  such  students. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapter  I. 
Bagley,  W.  C.,  School  Discipline,  Chapter  IV. 
Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  Chapter  I. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  Chapter  I. 
Engleman,  J.  O.,  Moral  Education  in  School  and  Home,  Chapter  II. 
Patri,  Angelo,  A  Schoolmaster  of  the  Great  City,  Chapters  I,  II. 


CHAPTER  H 
PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

RULES  AND  PUNISHMENTS 

PROBLEM  16.  —  A  teacher  who  has  been  much  annoyed  by 
frequent  cases  of  tardiness,  makes  a  rule  that  any  pupil  who  is 
tardy  must  remain  after  school  that  day  for  an  hour,  and  that 
his  name  must  be  placed  on  the  tardy  list  for  one  week.  Soon 
afterwards,  a  little  boy  arrives,  a  few  minutes  after  the  opening 
of  school.  He  is  very  much  out  of  breath  and  in  tears.  The 
teacher  says  sternly:  "  Write  your  name  on  the  tardy  list  and 
remain  this  afternoon."  The  child  writes  his  name  on  the 
blackboard  under  the  word  TARDY  following  those  of  several 
old  offenders.  He  is  pale  and  restless  all  day.  The  next 
morning,  before  school,  the  principal  comes  into  the  classroom 
and  tells  the  teacher  that  the  boy's  father  called  him  up  the 
previous  evening,  in  high  temper,  saying  that  the  child  was 
sent  to  the  drug  store  for  medicine,  that  he  protested  that  he 
would  be  late  for  school  but  was  assured  that  it  was  his  duty 
to  do  the  errand  for  his  sick  mother  and  the  teacher  would  ex- 
cuse him.  The  father  expressed  his  opinion  of  a  school  that 
punishes  children  for  obeying  their  parents.  The  principal  re- 
quests the  teacher  to  report  to  him  that  afternoon  how  she  plans 
to  deal  with  the  matter. 

THE  teacher  has  the  problem  on  her  mind  all  day.  Her 
first  impulse  is  to  excuse  herself.  The  father  ought  to 
have  gone  for  the  medicine  himself.  The  boy  ought  to  have 
told  her  why  he  was  late  although  she  knows  in  her  heart 
that  she  wouldn't  have  listened  to  him,  even  if  he  had  had 
courage  to  try  to  explain.  Suppose  she  had  asked  for  an 
explanation  and  had  excused  him,  what  would  have  become 

30 


RULES  AND   PUNISHMENTS  31 

of  her  rule?  The  children  would  think  that  rules  would 
not  really  be  enforced.  The  boy  did  not  really  deserve  to 
be  punished  but  it  was  better  for  the  class.  And  what  a 
mean  thing  the  father  had  said  —  that  the  school  was 
trying  to  make  children  disobey  their  parents,  when  she 
was  working  her  head  off  for  their  children !  She  would 
give  a  good  deal  if  that  man  could  have  a  chance  to  teach 
the  class  for  just  one  day. 

At  noon,  when  she  has  a  chance  to  think  without  interrup- 
tion and  has  recovered  from  her  excitement,  she  begins  to 
feel  differently.  She  knows  that  she  has  not  been  fair  to 
the  youngster,  and  he  is  such  a  timid,  well-meaning  little 
chap !  She  is  even  able  to  put  herself  in  the  father's 
place. 

Just  before  the  close  of  school,  she  says:  "Children, 
put  away  your  work.  I  have  something  to  say  to  you. 
I  made  a  mistake  yesterday  when  I  punished  Eddie  for 
being  late.  I  have  since  learned  that  it  wasn't  his  fault. 
He  had  to  get  some  medicine  for  his  mother  who  is  sick. 
That  was  the  right  thing  for  him  to  do.  He  ought  to  have 
been  praised,  not  punished,  for  doing  his  duty,  when  he  was 
afraid  of  being  late.  So  we  will  rub  out  his  name  from  the 
tardy  list,  and  put  it  under  the  words  OBEDIENT  TO  DUTY. 
That  means  doing  the  right  thing  even  if  you  may  be  pun- 
ished for  it. 

I  am  going  to  take  back  that  rule,  and  I  am  going  to  trust 
you  children  never  to  be  tardy  again  if  you  can  help  it ; 
but  if  your  mother  or  father  tells  you  that  it  is  your  duty 
to  do  something  which  will  make  you  late,  do  it  and  then 
tell  me  about  it.  If  anyone  is  careless  and  is  late  when  it 
is  his  own  fault,  I  shall  have  to  punish  him  to  help  him  to 


32  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

remember,  but  I  hope  that  nobody  will  be  punished  again 
when  he  has  done  right." 

After  reporting  to  the  principal  what  she  has  done,  she 
says:  "I  am  going  to  see  Mr.  Brown  to-night  and  try  to 
make  him  believe  that,  although  I  made  a  mistake  this 
time,  the  school  is  really  trying  to  teach  the  children  to  do 
their  duty." 

PROBLEM  16. — A  high  school  boy  has  a  strong  distaste  for 
school  and  urges  his  parents  to  let  him  go  to  work.  They  are 
ambitious  for  him  and  insist  on  his  remaining  until  he  graduates. 
He  is  inattentive  in  class,  seldom  prepares  his  lessons,  and  some- 
times "  cuts  "  classes. 

Two  of  his  teachers,  meeting  by  chance,  begin  to  discuss 
the  case.  One  says:  "I  met  Mr.  Lane  yesterday  and  ad- 
vised him  to  send  George  to  work.  He  is  simply  wasting 
his  time.  He  does  nothing  in  school,  and  punishment  only 
makes  him  sullen.  I  won't  have  him  in  the  room  when  he 
comes  unprepared.  He  has  sat  in  the  office  most  of  the 
time  this  week  while  his  class  has  been  reciting." 

The  other  replies:  "You  may  be  right  in  advising  his 
going  to  work,  but  I  have  the  feeling  that  we  owe  it  to  the 
parents  and  to  the  boy  himself  to  get  him  to  take  advantage 
of  his  opportunity  for  an  education  if  we  possibly  can.  I  re- 
member that,  at  his  age,  I  was  determined  to  leave  school 
but  my  father  and  one  of  the  teachers  induced  me  to  stay 
and  I  have  always  been  grateful  to  them.  If  it  had  not 
been  for  that  one  teacher,  I  should  probably  be  a  clerk  now 
instead  of  doing  what  is  to  me  the  finest  work  in  the  world." 

The  first  teacher  retorts:  "You  talk  about  getting  him 
to  take  advantage  of  his  opportunity,  but  how  are  you  going 
to  do  it?  He  hates  school  and  no  punishment  affects  him, 


RULES  AND   PUNISHMENTS  33 

because  he  knows  that  the  worst  that  you  can  do  to  him  is 
to  dismiss  him,  and  that  is  just  what  he  wants." 

The  other  goes  on :  "That  is  just  the  trouble.  If  we  get 
angry  with  him  and  punish  him  in  resentment,  it  only  makes 
him  worse.  If  we  really  want  to  change  his  attitude  and 
keep  him  in  school,  we  have  got  to  learn  how  to  treat  him 
so  as  to  produce  that  effect.  As  I  see  it,  the  worst  possible 
method  is  to  keep  him  idle  by  sending  him  from  the  class. 
We  must  try  to  get  him  interested.  For  the  time  being,  it 
does  not  matter  much  whether  he  does  exactly  what  we  have 
laid  out  for  the  class,  provided  he  exerts  himself  on  some- 
thing and  gets  rid  of  the  idea  that  school  is  simply  a  place 
where  unsympathetic  teachers  try  to  compel  him  to  do  tasks 
which  he  despises.  I  am  not  proposing  that  he  should  be 
allowed  to  do  just  what  he  likes,  but  if  we  want  to  help 
the  boy,  we  have  got  to  change  his  attitude  before  we  try 
to  make  him  conform  to  the  school  regime. 

I  know  that  he  has  good  ability  and  is  capable  of  getting 
very  much  interested  in  problems  requiring  hard  thinking. 
Once  in  a  while,  a  matter  comes  up  in  class  which  appeals 
to  him.  Several  times,  on  such  occasions,  he  has  shown 
more  knowledge  and  common  sense  than  any  of  the  other 
students.  A  few  days  ago,  when  he  came  unprepared,  I 
kept  him  after  school,  but  instead  of  making  him  study,  I 
set  him  to  work  helping  me  on  some  new  apparatus.  He 
worked  splendidly  and  made  a  suggestion  which  led  to  a 
decided  improvement  in  the  contrivance.  After  an  hour, 
I  told  him  that  he  might  go  but  he  stayed  on  until  the  work 
was  finished.  The  most  interesting  part  of  the  whole 
affair  was  that  the  next  day,  he  had  his  lesson  perfectly  and 
took  active  part  in  the  recitation.  I  am  inclined  to  think 

E.    T.    PROB. 3 


34  PROBLEMS   OF   DISCIPLINE 

that  if  we  are  friendly,  give  him  a  chance  to  do  things  occa- 
sionally in  which  he  excels,  and  encourage  him  at  such  times, 
and  if,  when  we  impose  punishments,  we  let  him  see  that 
our  purpose  is  not  merely  to  make  him  do  something  dis- 
tasteful, he  will  gradually  get  out  of  his  present  state  of 
mind  and  become  a  credit  to  us.  At  any  rate  I  think  that 
method  is  worth  trying  out." 

PROBLEM  17.  —  A  teacher  leaves  the  room  for  a  few  minutes. 
On  her  way  back  she  hears  a  great  deal  of  noise,  which  stops 
the  moment  she  enters  the  room.  She  knows  that  there  has 
been  disorder  but  is  not  sure  of  the  individuals  who  have  been 
responsible.  She  immediately  delivers  a  stinging  lecture  to 
the  class  saying  that  she  is  ashamed  of  them,  that  this  is  the  first 
class  that  she  has  not  been  able  to  trust.  She  orders  the  whole 
class  to  stay  after  school.  There  are  many  sullen  looks  and  an 
unusual  amount  of  disorder  during  the  rest  of  the  session.  For 
several  days  she  notices  an  unfriendly  spirit,  even  among  pupils 
who  have  never  before  given  the  slightest  trouble. 

The  situation  worries  her  and  she  finally  takes  it  to  the 
principal,  saying  that  she  does  not  see  what  has  got  into  the 
class.  The  pupils  seem  to  dislike  her  and  to  delight  in 
doing  things  to  annoy  her.  Then  she  bursts  into  tears. 

The  principal  asks  if  she  can  think  of  anything  which 
could  have  turned  the  class  against  her  and  she  finally 
speaks  of  the  episode  which  resulted  in  the  punishment  of 
the  class,  although  she  cannot  see  how  that  can  account 
for  the  subsequent  behavior,  since  she  has  often  kept 
pupils  after  school  without  arousing  any  resentment. 

The  principal  then  points  out  that  children  have  very 
strong  convictions  about  what  they  call  unfairness.  It 
seems  probable  to  him  that  the  pupils  have  deeply  resented 
the  injustice  of  her  rebuke  and  punishment  of  the  whole 
class  for  an  offense  of  which  perhaps  only  a  few  were  guilty. 


RULES  AND   PUNISHMENTS  35 

He  says:  "You  will  have  to  work  patiently  to  restore  their 
confidence  in  you.  You  must  be  very  careful  to  be  just. 
Don't  distrust  the  class  or  let  the  pupils  feel  that  you  dis- 
trust them  as  a  group.  Rather  encourage  them  to  take 
pride  in  the  class  and  its  power  to  be  self-directing.  When 
you  scold  or  punish  a  whole  class  it  has  little  effect,  except 
to  lower  the  class  tone.  On  the  other  hand  if  you  commend 
the  class  whenever  you  can  properly  do  so,  it  helps  to  de- 
velop a  good  class  spirit." 

PROBLEM  18.  —  A  teacher  has  the  practice  of  requiring  pupils 
who  misbehave  or  whose  work  is  unsatisfactory  to  her  to  re- 
main after  school.  Her  room  is  always  well  filled  for  at  least 
a  half  hour  after  school  closes.  There  is  no  evident  improve- 
ment. If  there  is  any  change  it  seems  to  be  for  the  worse. 
The  principal  asks  her  to  talk  over  the  situation. 

The  teacher  is  inclined  at  first  to  resent  any  criticism  of 
her  work  and  to  insist  that  she  is  doing  all  that  anyone  could 
do  with  such  children.  He  points  out  that  this  same  class 
was  regarded  as  a  particularly  good  one  the  previous  year 
and  that  she  had  much  the  same  difficulty  before  these 
children  came  to  her.  Then  she  begins  to  cry,  saying  that 
she  is  evidently  a  failure,  that  she  works  all  the  time  and  is 
worrying  herself  sick. 

The  principal  says:  "Now don't  be  absurd,  Miss  D.  I 
have  watched  your  work  and  I  know  that  you  have  qualities 
which  we  can't  afford  to  lose.  You  are  up  against  a  prob- 
lem, that's  all.  Now  just  face  it  calmly  and  let's  see  if 
we  can  get  at  the  difficulty.  When  you  first  met  this  class 
did  the  children  impress  you  as  particularly  hard  ones  to 
manage?" 

"No,"  she  says,  "for  the  first  day  or  two,  they  were 


36  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

delightful.  I  thought  they  were  remarkably  well-mannered 
and  bright,  but  gradually  they  seemed  to  become  careless 
and  then  troublesome  and  now  they  won't  do  anything 
until  they  are  forced  to  do  it.  I  hate  to  be  inflicting  pun- 
ishments constantly,  but  I  can't  allow  them  to  be  idle  and 
disobedient." 

The  principal  replies:  "It  seems  probable  that  there  is 
something  in  your  method  of  dealing  with  the  children 
which  breaks  down  previous  good  habits  and  tends  to 
establish  worse  ones.  When  the  children  came  to  you, 
they  were  courteous  and  responsive.  What  has  happened 
to  change  this  attitude?  I  wonder  if  you  soon  began  to 
make  demands  upon  the  children  which  they  did  not  under- 
stand, and  if  you  punished  them  when  they  could  not  see 
that  they  were  to  blame.  I  do  not  know  whether  that  is 
the  case  but  if  so,  it  would  explain  their  behavior.  If  chil- 
dren come  to  feel  that  a  teacher  does  not  understand  them, 
if  they  are  punished  for  failure  to  do  something  which  they 
do  not  understand,  they  are  sure  to  lose  confidence  in  her. 
Then,  instead  of  being  actively  helpful,  they  are  apt  to  sit 
back  and  wait  for  the  teacher  to  act. 

It  is  certain  that  the  present  lack  of  sympathy  between 
teacher  and  class  is  having  a  very  bad  effect.  If  it  continues, 
the  situation  is  bound  to  grow  worse,  just  as  a  spirit  of 
confidence  and  good  feeling  is  bound  to  stimulate  a  group 
to  greater  effort  and  continual  improvement. 

You  must  be  careful  not  to  expect  too  much  of  the  chil- 
dren. Remember  that  they  cannot  see  into  your  mind  even 
as  well  as  you  can  see  into  theirs.  Make  sure  that  you  and 
they  understand  one  another.  Praise  and  encourage  them 
whenever  they  have  made  a  good  effort,  but  don't  make 


RULES  AND   PUNISHMENTS  37 

the  mistake  of  praising  them  when  they  know  that  they 
don't  deserve  it.  They  will  think  that  you  are  trying  to 
buy  their  good  will  or  that  you  are  'easy/  and  that  is  as 
bad  as  to  be  unjust  or  harsh.  Don't  punish  a  child  re- 
peatedly. If  the  punishment  does  not  accomplish  the 
purpose  promptly  it  is  a  failure.  Repetition  makes  the 
child  callous.  Try  a  different  method. 

Your  problem  will  be  hardest  at  first  because  you  will 
have  to  overcome  a  strong  prejudice  and  bad  habits,  but 
if  you  are  determined  to  solve  it,  if  you  study  the  children 
carefully  and  are  patient,  you  will  presently  win  out.  As 
you  get  more  experience,  you  will  learn  to  deal  with  the 
children,  so  that  many  of  the  situations  which  are  now 
troublesome  to  you  will  be  properly  and  almost  uncon- 
sciously met  and  overcome." 

Miss  D.  then  says:  "I  believe  you  are  right.  I  am  not 
conscious  of  having  made  unreasonable  demands  nor 
inflicted  unjust  punishments  but  I  am  quite  sure  that  the 
children  do  not  understand  me  and  I  am  very  ready  to 
believe  that  I  have  not  understood  them.  I  shall  try  to 
get  a  spirit  of  cooperation  in  place  of  law  and  punishment." 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  RULES  AND  PUNISHMENTS 

1.  Uniform    inflexible    rules    are    dangerous.     A    rule 
should  be  regarded  as  a  means  not  an  end.     The  application 
of  a  rule  should  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  purpose 
of  education. 

2.  Pupils  should  understand  the  purpose  of  a  rule.     They 
should  be  encouraged  to  cooperate  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
making  and  enforcement  of  necessary  rules. 

3.  Punishment  should  be  used  in  a  manner  consistent 


38  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

with  the  purpose  of  education  —  not  by  rule.  Punish- 
ment should  never  be  inflicted  in  a  spirit  of  revenge. 

4.  A  good  punishment  accomplishes  its  purpose  without 
frequent  repetition. 

5.  Punishment  should  fit  the  offense  —  not  be  arbitrary. 

6.  Enforced  idleness  should  rarely,  if  ever,  be  used  as  a 
penalty. 

7.  A  child  should  not  be  punished  unless  it  is  clear  that 
he  is  to  blame. 

8.  It  is  never  wise  to  punish  a  whole  class  for  the  fault 
of  an  individual. 

9.  Punishment  often  repeated  loses  its  effect.     When 
such  punishment  seems  to  be  necessary,  it  is  usually  a  sign 
either  that  too  much  is  expected  of  the  child  or  else  that  he 
is  not  cooperating. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  19.  —  Some  of  the  members  of  a  class  begin  to  throw 
paper  wads.  The  teacher  becomes  exasperated,  and  directs 
that  the  boy  stand  who  threw  a  wad  that  has  just  been  seen. 
Nobody  moves  —  she  tries  again  without  result.  Then  she 
directs  that  the  whole  class  stay  after  school  until  the  guilty 
one  confesses. 

PROBLEM  20.  —  A  teacher  observes  disorder  in  one  corner  of 
the  room  and  feels  sure  that  she  knows  the  culprit.  She  orders 
him  to  stay  after  school.  He  protests  that  he  has  not  done 
anything,  but  she  says :  "  Don't  you  dare  to  talk  back  to  me  — 
you  may  stay  for  a  week."  He  looks  at  her  angrily,  mutters, 
and  is  thereafter  sullen  and  indifferent. 

PROBLEM  21.  —  A  young  teacher  makes  a  good  start.  Children 
are  well  behaved  at  first,  but  soon  begin  to  misbehave.  She 
begins  to  scold  and  impose  severe  penalties,  realizes  that  she 
has  gone  too  far  and  suddenly  tries  to  be  sympathetic  —  some- 
times sentimental.  The  class  gets  worse  and  worse,  becoming 


RULES   AND   PUNISHMENTS  39 

very  disrespectful.  Children  are  very  rude  and  noisy,  and  even 
throw  things  before  her  eyes. 

PROBLEM  22.  —  A  boy  has  never  been  tardy  during  six  or  more 
years  of  school  life.  He  lives  nearly  a  mile  from  school.  On  a 
cold,  slippery  morning  he  is  two  minutes  late.  The  rule  is  that 
pupils  who  are  tardy  shall  remain  after  school  for  30  minutes. 

PROBLEM  23.  —  A  teacher  of  a  country  school  becomes  exas- 
perated by  the  carelessness  of  the  children  and  says :  "  The 
next  child  who  drops  a  pencil  will  be  whipped."  In  a  few  min- 
utes, a  little  girl  who  is  the  pet  of  the  class  jumps  up  to  show  the 
teacher  a  drawing  which  she  has  just  finished  and  brushes  her 
pencil  off  the  desk. 

PROBLEM  24.  —  The  lawn  in  front  of  a  school  building  is  dis- 
figured by  a  path  worn  by  children  who  cut  across  the  corner  to 
save  steps. 

PROBLEM  25.  —  A  child  is  restless,  shuffles  his  feet,  squirms  on 
his  seat,  and  annoys  the  child  in  front  of  him.  The  teacher 
makes  him  sit  in  a  chair  in  the  front  of  the  room  facing  the  wall 
and  tells  him  to  keep  perfectly  still  if  he  doesn't  want  a  whipping. 
He  remains  there  for  thirty  minutes. 

PROBLEM  26.  —  A  child  who  is  troublesome  is  sent  to  the  coat- 
room  where  he  remains  for  the  rest  of  the  session,  more  than  an 
hour. 

PROBLEM  27.  —  A  young  teacher  has  trouble  in  controlling  her 
class.  When  ordinary  punishments  fail,  she  sends  a  pupil  to 
the  principal.  This  seems  to  have  a  good  effect  at  first,  so  on 
the  spur  of  the  moment  she  uses  the  same  method  for  a  very 
small  offense.  Before  long  she  is  sending  pupils  to  the  prin- 
cipal every  day,  and  yet  the  class  is  very  disorderly.  The 
pupils  do  not  seem  to  fear  the  punishment.  She  feels  that  the 
principal  is  not  "  backing  her  up." 

PROBLEM  28.  —  A  kindergarten  class  is  set  to  work  making  a 
box.  One  of  the  children  just  plays  with  his  material,  spoils  his 
paper,  and  smears  paste  on  another's  work.  The  teacher  tries 
without  success  to  get  him  to  work  and  then  tells  him  to  go  and 
stand  in  the  corner. 


40  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

PROBLEM  29.  —  A  high  school  girl  hands  in  a  story  as  an  English 
exercise,  which  seems  familiar  to  the  teacher.  She  finally  dis- 
covers it  to  be  an  exact  copy  of  a  story  published  a  few  years 
before  in  a  popular  magazine. 

PROBLEM  30.  —  A  library  book  which  has  been  missing  for  some 
days  is  found  in  a  pupil's  desk.  He  maintains  that  someone 
must  have  put  it  there. 

REFERENCES 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  School  Discipline,  Chapters  X-XIII. 

Morehouse,  Frances  M.,  The  Discipline  of  the  School,  Chapters  X, 

XI,  XIII,  XIV. 

Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  Chapter  VII. 
Engleman,  J.  O.,  Moral  Education  in  School  and  Home,  Chapter  V. 
Perry,  A.  C.,  Discipline  as  a  School  Problem,  Chapter  XXV. 


CHAPTER  in 
PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

CHILD  NATURE  AND  HABIT  FORMATION 

PROBLEM  31.  —  A  kindergarten  child  frequently  acts  in  a  selfish 
manner.  When  there  is  anything  to  eat,  he  reaches  for  the 
biggest  piece.  If  a  new  toy  is  brought  to  school,  he  tries  to  ap- 
propriate it  and  screams  if  prevented.  If  he  sees  another  child 
at  work  with  material  which  pleases  his  fancy,  he  tries  to  take 
it  for  himself.  When  rebuked  he  cries  passionately  and  insists 
on  going  home.  A  new  teacher,  coming  to  take  the  class,  is 
warned  by  the  retiring  teacher  that  "  this  child  is  completely 
spoiled.  You  can't  do  anything  with  him." 

THE  new  teacher  says  to  herself:  " Maybe  I  can't  but 
I  can  try.  If  I  am  to  be  an  expert  in  training  little  children, 
I  shall  have  to  learn  how  to  deal  with  such  cases.  This 
looks  like  an  opportunity  for  me  to  grow." 

During  the  first  few  days,  she  watches  the  child  closely 
and  discovers  that  he  has  plenty  of  ability.  In  anything 
which  interests  him,  he  works  persistently  and  intelligently, 
but  if  he  doesn't  want  to  do  a  thing,  he  is  as  stubborn  as  a 
mule.  The  selfish  traits,  of  which  she  has  been  warned, 
are  very  evident. 

By  calling  upon  the  mother,  she  soon  learns  that  the  same 
characteristics  arc  even  more  pronounced  at  home.  The 
child  rules  the  household.  When  denied  what  he  wants, 
he  screams  as  though  in  a  frenzy,  and  the  frightened  mother 
rives  in. 

41 


42  PROBLEMS   OF   DISCIPLINE 

The  teacher  thinks  about  the  case  a  great  deal.  She  sees 
that  the  situation  is  perfectly  natural.  The  selfishness 
is  easily  accounted  for.  It  is  the  universal  inheritance. 
The  trouble  is  that  this  high-spirited  boy  has  never  been 
trained  to  control  his  selfish  impulses.  The  habit  of  get- 
ting what  he  wants  is  firmly  fixed  and  the  habit  of  pleas- 
ing others  is  absent.  The  problem  is  to  develop  the  second 
habit  and  weaken  the  first. 

The  experience  of  the  previous  teacher  and  observation 
of  the  child's  home  have  shown  that  ordinary  punishment 
or  scolding  has  no  good  effect,  so  our  teacher  experiments 
with  other  methods.  She  discovers  that  the  boy  ir  much 
more  responsive  to  praise  than  to  blame,  and  she  takes 
care  to  commend  him  when  he  has  done  anything  well. 
She  shows  pleasure  when  any  of  the  children  act  generously 
and  disappointment  when  anyone  is  selfish.  When  the 
boy  acts  like  a  robber  baron,  she  says:  "Henry  doesn't 
feel  like  working  with  us  now.  People  can't  work  together 
unless  they  are  kind  to  each  other.  We  will  let  Henry 
work  by  himself  until  he  wants  to  be  kind."  He  is  not 
allowed  to  rejoin  the  group,  regardless  of  "tantrums," 
until  he  shows  a  real  desire  to  do  so  in  a  good  spirit,  and 
then  he  is  welcomed  back  cordially.  Gradually  the  com- 
bined effect  of  affection  for  the  teacher,  association  of  con- 
siderate behavior  with  the  right  to  take  part  in  the  class 
activities,  and  satisfaction  whenever  he  does  well,  de- 
velops new  habits  of  social  behavior  which  control  the  selfish 
impulses. 

PROBLEM  32.  —  In  a  fourth  grade,  a  boy  slyly  kicks  the  boy  in 
front  of  him.  The  latter  turns  around  and  scowls  and  then 
goes  on  with  his  work.  Presently  the  kick  is  repeated,  the 


CHILD  NATURE  AND  HABIT  FORMATION  43 

kicker  enjoying  the  impotent  rage  of  his  victim.  He  keeps  a 
furtive  eye  on  the  teacher  and  is  apparently  intent  on  his  book 
when  her  attention  is  attracted  by  the  movement  of  the  boy 
in  front.  The  latter  is  just  turning  back  to  his  work  and  is  told 
sternly  to  pay  attention  to  his  own  affairs.  This  delights  the 
tormentor  and  he  snickers  in  a  carefully  measured  tone.  At 
the  next  kick,  a  few  minutes  later,  the  boy  in  front  is  out  of  his 
seat  like  a  flash  and  raining  blows  on  the  other. 

The  teacher  is  horrified.  She  seizes  the  pugilist  by  the 
collar  and  drags  him  protesting  to  the  principal's  office. 
She  is  very  much  excited  and  feels  that  the  boy's  offense 
is  unpardonable.  She  starts  to  pour  out  her  story  in  the 
presence  of  several  other  persons. 

The  principal  says:  "Wait  a  minute,"  and  clears  the 
office.  Then  he  says  calmly:  "Now  let's  get  at  the  facts. 
Bob,  tell  me  just  what  happened."  The  boy  is  still  angry 
and  at  first  is  incoherent  in  his  reply,  but  cool  questioning, 
with  no  suggestion  of  distrust  or  contempt,  gradually 
brings  out  the  facts  and  calms  him  down.  The  principal 
then  says :  "Now,  while  I  am  talking  with  Miss  E.,  I  want 
you  to  do  an  errand  for  me.  When  you  get  back,  we  will 
decide  what  must  be  done  to  straighten  this  matter  out." 

The  other  boy  is  then  summoned.  He  is  not  inclined 
to  accept  much  blame,  saying  that  he  was  just  having  a 
little  fun  with  Bob  by  making  him  mad.  When  asked 
what  he  would  have  done  if  Bob  had  done  the  same  thing 
to  him,  he  said  he  would  have  "laid  for  him  after  school." 
He  is  then  told  to  wait  outside  the  office  until  sent  for. 

"Now,  Miss  E.,"  says  the  principal,  "I  think  we  have 
the  facts.  What  shall  we  do  ?  " 

"I  think  both  boys  should  be  whipped,"  she  replies.  "Bob 
had  strong  provocation,  but  such  behavior  in  the  classroom 


44  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

is  intolerable.  He  could  have  told  me  that  Jack  was  kick- 
ing him.  He  acted  like  a  wild  beast.  It  was  a  disgrace 
to  the  school  and  an  insult  to  the  teacher." 

The  principal  replies:  "I  feel  as  strongly  as  you  do  that 
such  a  thing  must  not  occur  again,  but  we  must  not  allow 
ourselves  to  be  so  overcome  by  the  disgracefulness  of  the 
occurrence  as  to  regard  these  children  as  criminals.  Both 
of  them  were  following  deep-seated  instincts.  One  of 
them  took  a  mean  advantage  of  the  other  and  rejoiced  in 
his  discomfort,  but  that  is  a  trait  of  human  nature  which 
is  very  strong  in  many  individuals  and  which  has  to  be 
trained  out  of  them.  The  other  boy  lost  his  self-control 
and  became  for  the  moment  a  savage.  A  part  of  his 
nature,  for  which  he  is  not  responsible,  is  still  savage, 
along  with  much  that  is  civilized  and  lovable.  We  must 
not  judge  these  boys  by  ourselves.  We  could  not  possibly 
have  behaved  as  they  did,  although  I  suspect  that  we  some- 
times do  things  in  a  more  refined  way  which  are  based  on 
the  same  instincts.  We  have  built  up  ideals  and  habits 
and  customs  which  control  our  natural  impulses.  Bob's 
control  apparatus  was  not  strong  enough  to  prevent  the 
explosion.  It  must  be  developed. 

Now,  in  trying  to  devise  the  proper  method  of  treatment, 
we  shall  have  to  consider  the  interest  of  the  boys  and  the 
influence  of  the  affair  upon  the  class.  I  doubt  if  whipping 
would  help  the  boys  much.  Both  of  them  were  prepared 
for  a  fight  in  which  they  would  probably  receive  more 
physical  punishment  than  if  they  were  whipped.  We  don't 
care  especially  to  make  their  bodies  sore,  but  we  do  want 
to  put  some  restraining  influence  into  their  minds.  My 
notion  is  to  have  the  boys  come  in  for  a  conference,  let  them 


CHILD   NATURE   AND  HABIT  FORMATION  45 

see  for  themselves,  without  preaching  at  them,  that  the 
good  name  of  the  school  and  the  welfare  of  the  class  have 
been  injured  by  their  behavior,  and. that  we  must  find  a 
way  to  overcome  the  injury  and  prevent  its  recurrence. 
I  should  like  to  tell  them  a  little  about  instincts  and  habits 
and  how  people  have  become  civilized.  I  hope  that  they 
will  feel  ashamed  of  having  let  their  feelings  control  them 
as  if  they  were  animals,  and  will  be  anxious  to  prove  that 
they  are  their  own  masters.  They  may  possibly  offer  to 
try  to  make  things  right  with  the  class,  although  that  is 
expecting  a  good  deal  from  youngsters  of  their  age.  If  they 
do  not  offer  to  do  it,  you  can  talk  the  matter  over  with  the 
class  yourself,  and  if  the  boys  show  a  good  spirit,  the  other 
children  will  suffer  no  harm. 

As  to  punishment,  it  seems  to  me  that,  since  the  boys 
have  shown  an  uncivilized  behavior  unworthy  of  the  class, 
the  natural  penalty  would  be  to  consider  them  not  full 
members  until  they  have  proved  that  they  can  be  counted 
upon  to  be  good  citizens.  They  might  be  denied  some 
privileges  for  a  few  days  and  then  be  reinstated  by  vote  of 
the  class,  or  they  might  not  be  permitted  to  take  part  in  the 
class  activities,  simply  working  as  individuals  and  reciting 
after  school  during  the  probationary  period.  If  the  empha- 
sis, until  the  affair  is  settled,  is  placed  consistently  upon  self- ' 
control  and  regard  for  the  rights  of  others  as  essentials 
of  good  citizenship,  the  occurrence  may  result  in  real  prog- 
ress for  the  class  as  well  as  for  the  boys  themselves." 

PROBLEM  33.  —  An  eighth-grade  class  has  the  habit  of  "  talking 
out."  Pupils  interrupt  each  other  and  even  interrupt  the 
teacher.  If  one  child  starts  to  ask  a  question,  another  is  apt 
to  break  in,  in  a  louder  tone.  If  the  teacher  asks  a  Question, 


46  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

several  reply  at  once.  She  often  feels  obliged  to  preface  a 
question  with  the  warning :  "  Raise  your  hands  if  you  wish 
to  answer."  She  continually  says:  "  Sh-sh,"  "Wait  until  I 
call  upon  you,"  "  Is  your  name  Mary?"  etc. 

The  teacher  is  greatly  troubled  by  the  situation.  She 
wants  to  have  a  natural,  friendly  atmosphere  in  the  recita- 
tion and  believes  that  pupils  ought  to  be  encouraged  to 
express  themselves,  yet  she  feels  obliged  to  repress  them 
constantly  and  realizes  that,  in  spite  of  frequent  admonition, 
they  are  making  no  progress  in  courtesy  toward  the  person 
who  has  the  floor. 

While  reading  a  book  on  educational  psychology,  she 
finds  in  the  chapter  on  habit  formation  some  illustrations 
which  remind  her  of  her  own  problem.  She  studies  the 
chapter  with  interest,  criticizing  her  own  practice  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  stated  by  the  author. 

The  first  point  which  claims  her  attention  is  the  state- 
ment that,  if  an  act  brings  satisfaction  to  the  person  who 
performs  it,  it  is  more  likely  to  be  repeated  than  if  it  brings 
discomfort.  "That,"  says  the  teacher  to  herself,  "would 
seem  to  justify  me  in  rebuking  or  punishing  pupils  who 
speak  out,  but  the  discomfort  is  apparently  not  sufficient. 
Perhaps  I  ought  to  use  more  severe  penalties,  but  if  I  do 
that,  it  will  surely  kill  all  spontaneity  in  class  discussion 
and  probably  spoil  the  friendly  relationship  between  me 
and  my  pupils.  I  believe  that  the  cure  would  be  worse 
than  the  disease." 

Reading  on,  the  teacher  meets  this:  "Repetition  of  an 
act  tends  to  fix  it  as  a  habit."  "Therefore,"  she  thinks, 
"my  boys  and  girls  must  be  prevented  from  interrupting 
each  other  and  so  strengthening  the  habit.  I  wish  he  would 


CHILD   NATURE    AND   HABIT   FORMATION  47 

tell  me  how  to  do  it.  Of  course,  if  that  were  the  only  con- 
sideration, I  might  accomplish  the  purpose  by  removing 
all  temptation.  I  might  abandon  class  discussion,  at  least 
for  a  time,  do  all  the  talking  myself,  and  let  the  pupils 
write  their  answers  and  put  any  questions  that  they  have 
to  ask  into  a  question  box.  I  should  think,  however,  that 
such  a  method  would  destroy  interest,  and  I  hate  the  pros- 
pect of  reading  all  those  papers.  I  wonder,  after  all,  if  the 
habit  would  be  broken  up  by  removing  temporarily  all 
opportunity  for  talking.  How  long  would  it  take?  I 
might  try  it  and  see,  but  I'll  wait  until  I  have  read  the  whole 
story." 

"In  order  to  fix  a  good  habit  or  to  overcome  a  bad  one, 
satisfaction  or  discomfort  should  always  be  associated  with 
the  action.  If  a  'bad  actor  gets  away  with  it '  occasionally, 
the  process  of  rooting  out  the  habit  is  greatly  retarded." 
"Have  I  been  living  up  to  that  principle?"  she  asks  herself. 
"Have  I  been  consistent  in  commending  pupils  who  await 
their  turn  and  showing  disapproval  whenever  anyone 
interrupts?  Let  me  see  if  I  can  recall  what  happened  to- 
day during  the  history  period.  I  remember  asking :  'What 
date  is  this?'  Half  the  class  immediately  said,  'November 
nth.'  It  did  not  occur  to  me  to  show  any  disapproval, 
and,  although  several  children  had  raised  their  hands 
instead  of  speaking,  I  accepted  the  answer  in  concert  and 
asked:  'Do  you  know  of  any  historical  event  which  took 
place  on  November  nth?'  Again  several  hands  went 
up  but  others  promptly  answered,  'Armistice  Day'  or  'The 
end  of  the  War,'  and  Wilbur  jumped  out  of  his  seat  en- 
thusiastically and,  speaking  in  a  manner  to  compel  atten- 
tion, said :  'The  German  representatives  agreed  to  the  terms 


48  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

that  General  Foch  said  they  must  accept  if  they  wanted  to 
stop  fighting.'  I  was  carried  away  by  his  enthus'asm  and 
asked  him  some  more  questions.  The  class  became  so 
much  interested  that  many  wanted  to  talk,  and  I  am  afraid 
that  those  who  talked  loudest  got  most  attention.  This 
soon  led  to  confusion  and  I  called  for  quiet  and  said  :  '  Please 
remember  to  raise  your  hands.'  It  took  some  time,  several 
rebukes,  and  a  few  appointments  for  'after  school,'  to  induce 
the  whole  class  to  wait,  after  a  question  had  been  asked, 
until  someone  was  called  on.  I  don't  doubt  that  I  forgot 
myself  several  times  and  accepted  spontaneous  answers, 
even  during  the  last  part  of  the  period.  It  seems  evident 
that  I  did  not  act  consistently  in  accordance  with  the 
principle.  If  I  had  done  so,  I  should  have  ignored  the 
spontaneous  answers  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  and 
called  on  someone  whose  hand  was  up.  I  wonder  if  that 
would  have  destroyed  the  enthusiastic  interest  with  which 
the  recitation  began.  I  must  try  it.  It  is  certain  that 
to-day's  method  was  wrong.  I  made  no  progress  in  over- 
coming the  bad  habit,  and  the  repression  used  during  the 
last  part  of  the  period  entirely  destroyed  the  interest  awak- 
ened at  the  beginning." 

"Sometimes  the  easiest  way  to  destroy  a  bad  habit  is 
to  develop  a  good  one  which  opposes  it." 

"Ah!  There's  an  idea!"  she  exclaims.  "If  I  could 
build  up  a  habit  of  courtesy  toward  others,  it  would  act 
as  a  check  on  the  tendency  to  'speak  out,'  and  it  would 
not  discourage  spontaneity  as  much  as  constant  repression. 
Control  does  not  develop  courtesy.  There  is  no  reason  why 
it  should.  How  can  a  habit  of  courtesy  be  built  up?  The 
first  three  principles  seem  to  apply.  'A  feeling  of  satisfac- 


CHILD  NATURE  AND  HABIT  FORMATION  49 

tion  associated  with  an  act  encourages  its  repetition/ 
'repetition  tends  to  make  the  act  habitual,'  and  'any 
lapses  interfere  with  the  formation  of  the  habit.'  I  have 
been  fixing  my  attention  on  the  bad  habit  and  trying  to 
check  it  by  rebuke  and  punishment.  I  must  concentrate 
upon  courtesy  and  consideration  for  others.  I  must  praise 
a  pupil  every  time  he  refrains  from  interrupting  when  he 
evidently  has  something  to  say.  I  must  always  recognize 
pupils  who  act  courteously  in  preference  to  those  who  do 
not.  I  must  give  plenty  of  opportunity  for  the  exercise 
of  courtesy  —  that  cuts  out  the  proposal  to  allow  no  talking 
at  all  —  but  I  must  try  to  avoid  any  lapses.  The  pupil 
who  forgets  and  'speaks  out'  must  get  no  encouragement. 
I  shall  have  to  try  to  make  him  sorry.  There's  the  trouble  ! 
Give  the  pupil  plenty  of  rope  but  don't  let  him  hang  him- 
self. I  don't  see  how  to  do  it,  but  perhaps  this  writer  has 
some  more  help  to  offer." 

"In  establishing  a  habit,  the  interest  of  the  learner  has 
an  important  influence.  Mere  repetition  without  interest 
and  therefore  without  attention  is  not  effective."  "That's 
the  point  that  I  needed,"  she  thinks.  "  If  I  merely  make  the 
pupils  go  through  the  motions  of  courteous  action,  they 
won't  become  courteous.  I  must  get  them  interested  in 
it.  I  think  I  see  how  to  do  it.  We  can  take  as  our  stand- 
ard the  procedure  in  a  conference  of  well-bred  adults. 
If  the  group  is  not  too  large,  no  formal  organization  is  needed 
in  such  a  meeting.  The  well-bred  person  refrains  from 
interrupting,  no  matter  how  eager  he  is  to  speak.  He 
awaits  his  opportunity,  listening  courteously  to  the  person 
\vho  has  the  floor.  In  a  group  as  large  as  an  ordinary 
class,  even  adults  need  a  chairman  who  recognizes  those 

E.    T.   PROB. 4 


50  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

who  ask  permission  to  speak.  Either  the  hand  signal  or 
the  usual  phrase,  'Mr.  Chairman/  or,  if  the  teacher  is 
presiding,  'Miss  Jones'  will  serve  the  purpose. 

I  believe  that  the  pupils  will  be  interested  in  working 
out  with  me  a  plan  for  controlling  our  recitations  or  con- 
ferences. We  might  attend  a  well  managed  meeting  of 
adults  and  discuss  the  procedure.  The  class  may  want 
to  adopt  some  rules.  At  times  one  of  their  number  might 
act  as  chairman." 

Our  teacher  tries  out  the  plan.  She  finds,  as  she  expected, 
no  difficulty  in  securing  the  interest  of  the  pupils,  but 
she  discovers  that  the  interest  is  not  strong  enough  to  con- 
trol their  action  for  a  long  period.  She  goes  back  to  her 
book  and  finds  the  statement  that,  in  acquiring  a  new  habit, 
it  is  harmful  to  continue  practice  for  too  long  a  period,  as 
fatigue  may  actually  destroy  the  gain  made  at  first.  She 
therefore  explains  this  fact  to  the  pupils  and  says  that  she 
will  help  them  by  controlling  the  recitation  or  changing 
the  work  as  soon  as  they  show  signs  of  falling  below  their 
standard.  She  makes  a  practice  of  commending  their 
efforts  when  she  relieves  them  of  responsibility,  and  holds 
out  to  them  the  prospect  of  gradually  increasing  the  length 
of  time  during  which  they  are  able  to  control  themselves 
in  courteous,  businesslike  discussion.  The  result  is  that 
pupils  become  interested  in  their  own  progress,  keep  their 
self-control  time  record,  frequently  say:  " Please  try  us 
ten  minutes  longer  to-day,"  and  show  strong  disapproval 
of  any  members  who  spoil  the  class  record. 

The  teacher  admits  that  this  method  requires  much 
harder  work,  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  than  that  of  rigidly 
controlling  all  recitations,  but  she  feels  that  her  pupils 


CHILD  NATURE  AND   HABIT  FORMATION  51 

are  gaining  much  in  ability  to  think  and  speak  and  in  self- 
control. 

PROBLEM  34.  —  A  high  school  teacher  receives  an  anonymous 
letter  saying  that  some  of  the  boys  in  his  class  have  been  betting 
on  football  games.  He  keeps  all  the  boys  after  school,  reads 
them  the  letter,  and  asks  what  they  know  about  the  matter. 
Nobody  speaks.  Then  he  asks  each  boy  in  turn  whether  he 
knows  anything  about  it.  The  first  boy  says  he  has  nothing 
to  say,  and  all  the  others  follow  suit.  The  teacher  then  says : 
"  You  are  getting  yourselves  into  serious  trouble  by  refusing  to 
1  answer  my  question  " ;  but  there  is  no  response  except  some 
sneers  and  ugly  looks.  As  the  principal  is  absent,  the  teacher 
orders  the  boys  to  report  at  the  office  before  school  the  next  day. 

That  evening  he  calls  on  the  principal,  shows  the  letter, 
and  tells  the  story.  The  principal  thanks  him  for  trying 
to  settle  the  matter  and  especially  for  taking  the  trouble 
to  report  it  in  person,  without  waiting  until  morning.  Then 
he  says:  "The  most  serious  factor  in  the  case  is  that  the 
boys  are  now  banded  together,  ready  to  die  in  defense  of  a 
principle.  They  think  that  you  were  trying  to  make  them 
give  information  which  would  lead  to  the  detection  of  the 
guilty  ones.  That  has  made  them  hostile  as  a  body  toward 
you,  and  this  feeling  has  probably  obscured  in  their  minds 
all  condemnation  of  the  gamblers,  although  some  of  them 
had  probably  disapproved  of  the  gambling  before  the  other 
issue  arose.  To  boys  of  this  age,  telling  on  another  is  the 
worst  offense  in  the  calendar." 

The  teacher  is  offended  and  suggests  that  the  principal 
is  defending  the  boys  and  blaming  him.  "Oh,  no!"  says 
the  principal.  "You  did  a  perfectly  natural  thing.  I 
should  probably  have  done  exactly  the  same  if  I  had  not 
worked  with  boys  so  long  that  I  know  some  of  their  pecu- 
liarities. The  important  thing  now  is  to  straighten  these 


52  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

boys  out  and  safeguard  the  school.  You  naturally  thought 
that  the  boys  would  look  on  the  matter  as  you  do.  The 
fact  is  that  they  do  not.  There  is  no  use  in  saying  that 
they  ought  to  do  so.  We  are  educating  boys  and  we  must 
act  in  accordance  with  boy  nature.  Approached  in  one 
way,  boys  are  chivalrous  and  loyal  to  the  best  ideals. 
Approached  in  a  way  which  is  contrary  to  their  code,  they 
can  be  as  unyielding  as  any  martyr." 

The  next  morning  when  the  boys  and  the  teacher  are 
assembled  in  the  office,  the  principal  says:  "Boys,  Mr.  J. 
has  told  me  about  the  letter  which  he  received  yesterday 
and  about  his  trouble  with  you.  As  the  letter  is  not  signed, 
he  could  not  call  upon  the  writer  to  give  his  evidence  for 
the  charge  against  the  good  name  of  the  school,  so  naturally 
he  took  the  matter  to  you.  He  was  surprised  and  hurt 
because  he  thought  you  had  refused  to  help,  but  I  have 
explained  to  him  that  you  did  not  understand  him  and  he 
did  not  understand  you.  He  and  I  agree  on  this  matter. 
If  the  charge  is  false,  we  want  to  know  it.  It  will  be  repeated 
and  will  probably  get  into  the  newspapers.  If  we  have 
your  assurance  that  it  is  not  true,  we  can  deny  it  and  chal- 
lenge anyone  to  produce  any  evidence  in  support  of  it. 
If  it  is  true,  we  count  upon  you  to  put  a  stop  to  the  practice 
and  to  see  that  the  smirch  on  the  reputation  of  the  school 
is  wiped  out.  We  do  not  want  to  know  which  of  you  are 
guilty,  but  we  want  you  as  a  class  to  see  that  any  money 
which  has  changed  hands  is  returned,  and  we  want  your 
assurance  that  you  will  not  permit  any  boy  to  remain  a 
member  of  the  class  who  persists  in  gambling.  Now  you 
may  go  to  the  classroom  and  settle  the  matter.  We  will 
wait  here  until  you  send  your  spokesman  to  report." 


CHILD  NATURE  AND  HABIT  FORMATION  53 

At  the  end  of  a  half  hour,  one  of  the  boys  comes  to  the 
office  and  reports  that  two  members  of  the  class  won  a 
dollar  each  from  boys  in  another  school,  that  they  have 
promised  to  return  the  money,  and  that  all  the  boys  have 
agreed  not  to  gamble  as  long  as  they  are  members  of  the 
school. 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  CHILD  NATURE  AND  HABIT 
FORMATION 

1.  Child  nature  is  complex  and  can  be  understood  only  by 
careful  study  and  close  observation. 

2.  Instinctive  behavior,  accompanying  selfish  desire,  anger, 
jealousy,  fear,  etc.,  can  be  changed  only  by  patient  effort. 

3.  The  standards  of  adults,  especially  of  adult  women,  cannot 
be  appreciated  readily  by  the  young  boy. 

4.  The  ideas,  prejudices,  and  interests  peculiar  to  childhood 
must  not  be  ignored  or  despised  by  the  teacher. 

5.  A  calm,  sympathetic  treatment  of   a  child's  difficulties 
will  accomplish  far  more  than  impatience. 

6.  The  satisfaction  of  doing  well  is  of  ten  a  more  potent  influence 
upon  conduct  than  shame  or  discomfort. 

7.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  formation  of  a  habit,  action  must 
be  repeated  by  the  learner  at  frequent  intervals,  and  any 
inconsistent  action  must  be  avoided. 

S.  Consistent  action  by  the  teacher  is  necessary  for  the  forma- 
tion or  maintenance  of  habits. 

9.  In  attempting  to  establish  or  change  a  habit,  the  interest 
of  the  learner  is  important.  Therefore  the  period  during 
which  he  is  put  to  the  test  should  be  limited  by  his  power 
of  attention. 

10.  In  attempting  to  root  out  a  bad  habit,  it  is  often  more 
effective  to  develop  a  good  one  which  opposes  it  than  to 
concentrate  attention  upon  the  bad  one. 

11.  A  habit  can  be  formed  or  changed  much  more  readily  by 
cooperation  than  by  the  individual  effort  of  the  teacher. 

12.  Habits  established  in  conformity  to  ideals  are  likely  to  be 
more  permanent  than  those  established  by  fear. 


54  PROBLEMS  OF  DISCIPLINE 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  35.  —  A  girl  of  ordinary  ability  is  very  self-conscious 
and  aspires  to  excel.  She  is  jealous  of  an  abler  girl  who  usually 
gets  higher  marks  and  is  much  more  popular.  The  first  girl 
disparages  the  other,  saying  that  she  is  a  snob  and  a  teacher's 
pet ;  refuses  ostentatiously  to  speak  to  her.  She  reports  at 
home  that  the  teachers  are  unfair. 

PROBLEM  36.  —  A  high  school  girl  is  "  boy  crazy."  She  dresses 
elaborately  and  is  continually  patting  and  smoothing  her  hair. 
She  annoys  the  teachers  and  distracts  attention  by  smiling  and 
whispering  to  boys  who  sit  near  her  in  class.  She  is  very  con- 
spicuous in  the  corridors  and  always  manages  to  be  on  the  point 
of  starting  for  home  when  certain  boys  come  out,  after  school. 
Her  school  work  deteriorates.  Some  of  the  teachers  think  the 
case  is  serious. 

PROBLEM  37.  —  Two  boys  have  a  fight  on  the  way  to  school. 
One  of  the  girls  tells  the  teacher. 

PROBLEM  38.  —  In  a  second  grade,  one  pupil  tells  of  an  interest- 
ing experience.  Another  emulates  him,  telling  a  highly  improb- 
able story.  The  teacher  asks:  "Is  that  true?"  He  insists 
that  it  is,  and  sticks  to  his  story  in  spite  of  all  that  she  can  do. 

PROBLEM  39.  —  A  boy  is  called  to  account  for  frequent  misbe- 
havior. He  promises  to  do  better  and  is  reinstated  in  his  class 
with  the  understanding  that  if  he  misbehaves  again  he  will  be 
suspended.  For  several  days  he  is  on  his  good  behavior  and  then 
falls  from  grace.  When  reminded  of  his  promise,  he  says  he 
forgot. 

PROBLEM  40.  —  A  sixth-grade  boy  who  is  older  and  larger  than 
the  other  members  of  his  class  has  become  a  "  bully." 

PROBLEM  41.  —  Miss  B.  sees  a  boy  in  disorder  and  asks  for  an 
explanation.  He  replies  :  "  Someone  is  throwing  things  at  me." 
"  Do  you  know  who  did  it?  "  she  asks.  "Yes,  but  I  won't 
tell,"  is  his  answer. 


CHILD   NATURE   AND   HABIT   FORMATION  55 

PROBLEM  42.  —  A  primary  teacher  notices  that  the  children 
have  developed  a  habit  of  running  to  her  with  "tales"  about 
their  classmates.  She  knows  that  she  has  been  unconsciously 
allowing  "tattling"  to  gain  headway.  The  chief  offenders 
seem  to  be  some  of  her  "  best "  pupils.  She  realizes  that  the 
matter  needs  attention. 

PROBLEM  43.  —  A  teacher  inspects  the  reading  books  of  her 
class  which  have  been  in  use  only  a  few  weeks  and  finds  them 
incredibly  soiled  and  torn.  She  has  spoken  several  times  about 
the  need  of  taking  good  care  of  the  new  books.  Evidently  her 
words  have  had  no  effect. 

PROBLEM  44.  —  A  teacher  is  dissatisfied  with  the  manner  in 
which  certain  pupils  recite.  They  speak  in  tones  scarcely 
audible  to  him  and  the  class.  They  address  him  alone  and  feel 
no  responsibility  for  the  interest  and  instruction  of  classmates. 
The  teacher  attempts  to  persuade  them  to  speak  louder  and  to 
the  class,  by  explaining  that  it  is  discourteous  not  to  make 
one's  self  heard.  Finally  he  says  that  anyone  who  fails  to  make 
himself  heard  will  be  told  to  sit  down,  and  will  be  marked 
"  zero."  The  result  is  that  these  pupils  are  ignored  and  fail 
in  the  term's  work. 

PROBLEM  45.  —  An  English  teacher  tries  to  create  a  feeling  for 
the  correct  usage  "  It  isn't."  The  expression  is  used  correctly 
in  the  classroom.  On  her  way  to  school  she  overhears  the  con- 
versation of  a  group  of  her  girls  and  all  her  pride  vanishes  as  she 
hears  "  It  ain't."  She  feels  that  the  odds  are  against  her  and 
that,  unless  home  surroundings  and  other  associations  supple- 
ment her  efforts  for  correct  usage,  the  task  is  hopeless,  so  she 
lets  the  matter  drift. 

PROBLEM  46.  —  A  class  is  very  much  interested  in  "  Ivanhoe  " 
and  many  times  the  brighter  pupils  eagerly  wave  their  hands  as 
a  slow  pupil  recites.  The  teacher  has  frequently  requested  the 
pupils  not  to  wave  their  hands,  jump  out  of  their  seats,  or  in 
any  way  embarrass  the  pupil  reciting.  The  request  is  frequently 
forgotten  in  their  eagerness  to  tell,  until  a  frown,  a  sharp  word, 
or  a  domineering  manner  brings  silence,  kills  ardor,  and  brings 
class  work  practically  to  a  standstill.  The  teacher  visualizes 


56  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

a  prim  orderly  classroom  where  each  pupil  is  at  his  best.  She 
desires  spontaneity,  and  quick  thinking,  and  she  is  not  get- 
ting either. 

PROBLEM  47.  —  Pupils  of  an  eighth  grade  which  has  been  con- 
sidered careless  and  lazy  as  a  class  are  advised  by  their  teacher 
to  call  a  meeting  to  discuss  plans  for  improvement.  They  talk 
freely,  have  good  ideas,  and  show  genuine  desire  to  reform.  At 
the  end  of  a  week,  absolutely  no  improvement  is  noticeable. 

PROBLEM  48.  —  A  child  is  brought  to  the  kindergarten  by  his 
mother.  He  is  very  timid,  clings  to  her  hand,  and  when  she 
starts  to  leave  him,  screams  in  terror  and  resists  all  efforts  to 
pacify  him,  until  the  mother  takes  him  home.  She  cannot 
get  him  to  go  to  school  again,  and  appeals  to  the  teacher. 

PROBLEM  49.  —  A  teacher,  noticing  that  one  of  the  pupils  is 
not  paying  attention  during  the  reading  lesson,  calls  on  him 
suddenly.  He  is  confused,  hesitates,  and  begins  to  read  in  the 
wrong  place.  The  teacher  says:  "  Go  to  sleep  again.  Helen 
may  read."  The  boy  flushes  and  slinks  into  his  seat. 

PROBLEM  50.  —  A  teacher  is  dissatisfied  with  the  work  of  her 
class  in  spelling  and  announces  that  every  misspelled  word  must 
be  rewritten  twenty  times.  This  does  not  have  much  effect. 

PROBLEM  61.  —  A  class  makes  a  poor  showing  in  fire  drill. 
Pupils  move  too  slowly  and  there  is  a  good  deal  of  talking  and 
laughing.  The  teacher  criticizes  the  performance,  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  the  drill,  and  warns  the  pupils  to  be  on  the 
alert  the  next  time.  The  class  seems  to  be  impressed,  but  at 
the  next  drill,  three  weeks  later,  does  little  better. 

REFERENCES 

La  Rue,  D.  L.,  Psychology  for  Teachers. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  Part  I. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapters  IV,  IX. 

Earhart,  L.  B.,  Types  of  Teaching,  Chapter  II. 

Sechrist,  Education  and  the  General  Welfare,  Chapters  XIII,  XIV. 

Dewey,  J.,  Democracy  and  Education,  Chapter  IV. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process. 

Engleman,  J.  O.,  Moral  Education  in  School  and  Home,  Chapter  III. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PROBLEMS  OF  DISCIPLINE 

THE  CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS 

PROBLEM  62.  —  A  boy  defaces  the  school  building  by  writing 
on  the  plaster  walls.  On  entering  the  school,  the  teacher  ob- 
serves a  group  of  children  examining  the  scrawl.  A  boy  re- 
marks jokingly:  "That  looks  like  your  writing,  Tom."  Tom 
replies :  "  Sure,  it's  my  writing." 

THE  teacher  asks  him  if  he  really  did  it,  and  he  says 
again:  "Sure."  " Aren't  you  ashamed  of  yourself!"  she 
exclaims  angrily.  "Go  to  the  office  and  report  to  Mr. 
Brown  what  you  have  done." 

The  principal  insists  on  his  making  a  public  apology. 
The  boy  refuses  at  first  but  when  the  principal  starts  to 
write  a  letter  to  his  father,  he  consents  rather  than  take 
the  inevitable  whipping.  When  called  upon  to  make  his 
apology,  he  mumbles  a  few  words  and  slinks  sullenly  into 
his  seat.  The  teacher  overhears  some  of  the  boys  talking 
about  the  matter.  One  says:  "He  was  a  fool  to  tell. 
They  wouldn't  have  caught  him  if  he  had  kept  still."  In 
a  day  or  two,  there  is  more  writing  on  the  walls  but  all 
efforts  to  discover  the  offender  are  fruitless.  The  deface- 
ment continues  until  teachers  or  monitors  are  placed  on 
guard,  so  that  pupils  are  never  without  supervision. 

One  of  the  teachers,  Miss  B.,  is  greatly  distressed  by  the 
situation.  She  detests  the  police  work  and  feels  that  it  is 
having  a  bad  effect  upon  her  class.  After  a  time,  she  de- 

57 


58  PROBLEMS    OF   DISCIPLINE 

tides  to  discuss  the  matter  with  her  pupils.  She  explains 
her  desire  to  be  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  doing  guard 
duty,  saying  that  it  makes  her  appear  distrustful  of  the 
pupils,  whereas  she  knows  that  they  are  perfectly  capable 
of  taking  care  of  themselves.  She  suggests  that  if  the 
members  of  the  class  are  willing  to  take  the  responsibility 
for  their  conduct  when  she  is  not  present,  she  will  ask  the 
principal  to  excuse  her  from  the  duty  of  watching  them. 
The  class  seems  to  welcome  the  suggestion,  but  one  of  the 
pupils  objects  that,  if  there  should  be  any  marking  of  the 
walls,  this  class  would  be  blamed.  "But  the  other  pupils 
will  not  be  left  alone,"  says  the  teacher,  "so  if  we  take  care 
of  ourselves,  there  will  be  no  trouble." 

The  pupil  is  not  convinced.  "They  can't  watch  all  the 
time,"  he  argues.  "When  somebody  is  trying  to  prevent 
you  from  doing  something,  it  makes  you  want  to  do  it. 
Old  Jones  is  always  watching  his  orchard  and  complaining 
to  the  policeman,  but  the  boys  keep  swiping  his  apples ; 
it's  such  fun  to  fool  him.  All  the  fellows  arc  looking  for  a 
chance  to  mark  the  walls  and  they'll  do  it  pretty  soon." 

"I  see,"  says  the  teacher,  "but  suppose  our  class  should 
propose  that  the  whole  school  adopt  my  scheme.  Do  you 
think  that  the  other  classes  would  agree  to  do  their  part?" 

"I  think  so,"  replies  the  boy,  "but  I  don't  know  about 
Tom  and  his  crowd.  They  are  sore  because  he  had  to 
apologize." 

"Well,"  says  the  teacher,  "let  us  think  it  over.  We 
needn't  say  anything  about  it  to  anyone  else  until  we 
decide  what  to  do." 

She  then  goes  to  the  principal,  explains  her  own  point  of 
view,  and  reports  the  class  discussion.  He  listens  with  in- 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS         59 

terest  until  she  has  finished  her  statement  and  then  says : 
"I  have  been  thinking  about  the  matter  a  great  deal.  It 
is  clear  that  we  have  not  handled  it  properly,  and  a  bad 
spirit  has  grown  up,  but  I  have  been  puzzled  as  to  the  best 
way  to  overcome  it.  I  like  the  idea  of  having  your  class 
take  the  lead,  but  first  I  must  see  if  I  can  change  Tom's 
attitude.  That  forced  apology  was  a  blunder.  Indeed, 
I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that,  unless  an  apology  is 
voluntary  and  sincere,  it  is  worse  than  useless." 

At  the  first  convenient  opportunity,  the  principal  says 
to  the  boy :  "Tom,  you  remember  the  trouble  that  we  had 
a  little  while  ago."  The  boy  nods.  "Well,  there  is  one 
thing  that  I  want  you  to  know,  and  that  is  that  I  respect 
you  for  owning  up  when  nobody  knew  who  did  the  damage. 
It  was  a  square  thing  to  do.  And  there  is  one  thing  that 
I  want  to  understand  myself.  Why  were  you  so  unwilling 
to  apologize?"  The  boy  hesitates  but  finally  says :  "Be- 
cause you  wanted  to  make  a  fool  of  me  before  the  school." 
"So  that  was  it,"  says  the  principal.  "Well,  since  you 
felt  that  way  about  it,  I  am  very  sorry  that  I  made  you 
apologize.  You  had  injured  the  building  which  belongs 
to  all  of  us,  so  I  thought  you  ought  to  apologize  to  all  of  us. 
If  you  had  felt  about  it  as  I  thought  you  ought  to  feel,  you 
would  not  have  been  making  a  fool  of  yourself  but  setting 
yourself  right  before  the  school.  But  there  was  no  use  in 
saying  the  words  if  you  didn't  mean  them,  so  I  am  sorry 
that  I  forced  you  to  do  it. 

Now  I  think  I  know  a  much  better  plan  than  the  one 
we  are  using  for  preventing  injury  to  the  building,  but  we 
shall  need  your  help.  It  is  absurd  to  make  teachers  act  as 
policemen.  They  can't  prevent  injury  if  pupils  really 


60  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

want  to  cause  damage.  But  why  should  pupils  want  to 
do  so  ?  It  is  their  building  and  I  should  like  to  have  them 
take  charge  of  it.  Do  you  think  they  can?" 

"Yes,  if  they  want  to,"  is  the  boy's  answer. 

"Will  you  help?"  asks  the  teacher. 

"Yes,"  is  the  half-hearted  reply. 

Miss  B.'s  class  prepares  a  letter  to  the  principal,  asking 
that  the  pupils  be  permitted  the  same  freedom  as  before 
the  trouble,  provided  they  agree  to  take  care  of  the  build- 
ing. The  letter  is  read  at  an  assembly  of  the  upper  grades, 
and  the  principal  requests  each  class  to  discuss  the  matter 
and  to  write  him  a  letter  stating  whether  the  class  wishes 
to  have  the  proposal  adopted.  All  the  classes  vote  ap- 
proval and  each  appoints  a  committee  to  have  oversight 
of  its  room  and  a  delegate  to  a  school  committee  which  is 
to  see  that  the  building  outside  the  classrooms  receives 
proper  care.  Tom  is  made  a  member  of  the  committee. 

PROBLEM  63. 

LINCOLN   JUNIOR  HIGH   SCHOOL 

OFFICE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL 
NOTICE  TO   TEACHERS 

THE   SUBJECT  OF  THE   NEXT  TEACHERS'   MEETING   WILL   BE 
CONDUCT  DURING  INTERMISSION  PERIODS 

Mr.  Evans  will  report  on  his  clay  of  observation  in  the  H 

School,  where  pupils  pass  from  one  recitation  room  to  another 
without  supervision  and  without  forming  in  files.  He  recom- 
mends that  we  adopt  the  same  plan.  Come  prepared  to  dis- 
cuss this  proposal. 

ED\V.  B.  JACKSON 
Principal 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS         61 

Mr.  Evans  speaks  as  follows:  "What  I  noticed  especially 
was  the  fine  spirit.  I  arrived  just  as  the  pupils  were  passing 
from  one  recitation  room  to  another.  I  was  surprised  to 
see  that  there  were  no  files  and  many  were  talking  and  laugh- 
ing. I  assumed  that  the  teacher  in  charge  of  this  part  of 
the  building  must  be  absent  from  his  post.  I  asked  where 
I  could  find  the  principal  and  was  directed  to  the  office  on 
the  second  floor.  As  I  went  up  the  stairway,  pupils  stepped 
aside  courteously  to  allow  me  to  pass  but  showed  no  embar- 
rassment, giving  the  impression  that  the  condition  which 
had  surprised  me  was  not  unusual.  As  I  reached  the  head 
of  the  stairs,  I  was  prepared  to  greet  the  teacher  who  would 
naturally  be  there,  but  no  teacher  was  in  sight.  As  I 
walked  along,  glancing  through  the  doors,  I  saw  teachers 
talking  with  pupils,  writing  on  the  blackboards,  or  seated 
at  their  desks.  None  of  them  acted  as  if  he  belonged  any- 
where else.  Evidently  they  were  not  expected  to  supervise 
pupils  during  the  intermission. 

This  was  at  first  a  real  shock.  It  had  never  occurred  to 
me  that  such  an  arrangement  was  possible.  As  the  idea 
penetrated  my  mind,  I  stopped  instinctively  and  looked  for 
the  inevitable  'rough-house.'  To  my  amazement  there 
were  no  signs  of  it.  The  pupils  all  seemed  to  know  where 
they  were  going  and  were  on  their  way  in  what  would  have 
seemed  a  perfectly  natural  manner  if  they  had  not  been  in 
school.  'Probably  there  are  monitors'  I  thought,  but  I 
saw  none.  I  noticed  a  few  cases  of  'fooling'  but  not  enough 
to  overcome  the  mental  'jolt'  which  this  new  phenomenon 
had  given  me.  In  a  minute  or  two  the  corridors  were  empty, 
the  bells  rang  for  the  next  recitation,  and  the  building  was 
quiet. 


62  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

As  soon  as  I  had  introduced  myself  to  the  principal,  I 
asked  about  the  monitors.  '  We  do  not  believe  in  monitors,' 
said  he.  'Then  how  do  you  get  such  good  order?'  I 
asked.  'If  our  teachers  should  stay  in  their  classrooms 
during  intermission  periods,  we  should  have  running  and 
pushing  and  unlimited  noise.'  'It  takes  time  to  make  the 
change,'  he  replied.  'We  always  had  filing  under  the 
supervision  of  teachers  until  two  years  ago,  but  we  had  to 
deal  constantly  with  infractions  of  discipline  and  teachers 
were  harassed  by  the  duty  of  controlling  pupils  when  they 
ought  to  have  been  relaxing  a  bit  between  classes.  Worst 
of  all,  pupils  were  getting  no  valuable  training  which  would 
be  of  use  outside  the  school.  We  discussed  the  matter 
thoroughly  with  the  pupils  and  then  tried  out  the  present 
plan.  We  had  trouble  for  some  time,  partly  from  pupils 
and  partly  from  teachers,  who  could  not  overcome  their 
fixed  ideas  and  to  whom  anything  but  marching  in  file 
without  talking  was  disorder.  However,  the  school  as  a 
whole  liked  the  new  plan  and  gradually  became  used  to  it. 
Now  we  rarely  have  cases  of  real  disorder.  We  are  all 
proud  of  our  school  and  what  it  stands  for.  One  of  our 
ideals  is  ability  to  take  care  of  myself  so  as  not  to  interfere 
•with  the  rights  or  comfort  of  others.' 

The  idea  took  hold  of  me  at  once.     I  caught  myself 

thinking  about  it  as  I  sat  in  the  recitation  rooms,  and  by 

the  time  I  reached  home,  I  had  transformed  our  own  school 

-  in  my  mind's  eye.    Why  shouldn't  we  adopt  the  plan? " 

The  report  precipitates  a  vigorous  discussion.  Some 
teachers  support  the  recommendation,  but  many  offer 
objections.  One  says:  "It  would  never  work  with  our 
pupils.  Can  you  imagine  what  Ed.  Murphy  and  the 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS         63 

Romelli  boy  would  do  if  we  left  them  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves?" This  brings  an  appreciative  laugh.  Another 
says :  "I  know  a  teacher  who  was  in  that  school  last  year. 
She  says  the  plan  is  just  a  fad  of  the  principal's,  the  teachers 
don't  like  it,  and  she  herself  was  so  disgusted  that  she 
couldn't  stay."  A  third  remarks:  "They  tried  a  scheme 
like  that  in  a  school  in  my  home  town,  and  it  was  such  a 
failure  that  the  principal  was  dismissed,  and  the  school 
board  appointed  a  man  who  had  the  reputation  of  being  a 
rigid  disciplinarian." 

The  teacher  who  started  the  argument  soon  sees  that  no 
progress  is  to  be  made  by  prolonging  it.  The  teachers  are 
taking  sides  and  ignoring  arguments  which  do  not  support 
their  own  views.  He  has  set  his  heart  on  a  trial  of  the  plan 
but  realizes  that  it  will  be  a  failure  unless  it  is  started  under 
favorable  conditions,  not  the  least  important  of  which  is  the 
confidence  and  support  of  the  teachers.  He  says:  "Per- 
haps I  have  judged  too  hastily.  Evidently  the  problem  is 
not  a  simple  one.  I  was  so  delighted  with  what  I  saw  the 
other  day  that  I  was  eager  to  transform  our  school  at  once, 
but  I  see  now  that  we  should  be  inviting  failure  if  we  should 
make  the  change  without  studying  the  matter  carefully 
and  profiting  by  experience  elsewhere.  I  suggest  that  a 
committee  be  appointed  to  study  the  matter.  Let  other 
teachers  visit  the  school  'which  impressed  me  so  much.  If 
they  go  on  different  days,  the  combined  observations  ought 
to  settle  the  question  as  to  whether  the  plan  is  really  work- 
ing well,  or  whether  I  saw  the  school  under  exceptional 
conditions.  We  ought  to  have  also  all  the  facts  about  the 
other  experiments  which  have  been  mentioned  in  our  dis- 
cussion. In  what  respects  have  the  successful  trials  dif- 


64  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

fered  from  the  failures?  What  are  the  causes  of  the 
failures?  Were  the  same  conditions  met  in  the  successful 
cases?  If  so,  how  were  they  overcome?". 

The  suggestion  is  accepted  and  the  committee  appointed. 
Letters  are  written  to  principals  and  teachers  who  are 
known  to  have  had  experience  with  a  plan  of  unsupervised 
movement  of  pupils  outside  the  classrooms,  and  visits  are 
made  to  other  schools.  Several  weeks  later  the  committee 
reports  as  follows : 

"We  first  visited  the  H  -  -  School  whose  plan  was  de- 
scribed at  the  last  meeting.  We  are  able  to  confirm  the 
report  made  then.  The  plan  is  working  well  in  that  school. 
We  saw  a  few  cases  which  might  be  regarded  as  disorder, 
but  not  nearly  as  many  as  in  other  schools  in  which  pupils 
were  always  under  supervision  and  passing  in  file.  We 
were  all  impressed  with  the  attitude  of  the  pupils.  They 
seem  to  have  learned  to  take  care  of  themselves  and  to  take 
pride  in  their  ability  to  do  so.  We  asked  one  of  the  boys 
about  it.  He  turned  out  to  be  a  newcomer,  having  moved 
into  town  within  a  month.  He  said:  'It  seemed  funny 
at  first.  We  always  marched  in  file  where  I  came  from,  but 
when  I  saw  the  way  the  other  fellows  did  I  soon  caught 
on.  Somehow  you  don't  feel  so  much  like  rough-housing, 
when  nobody  is  looking  for  trouble. ' 

We  then  visited  another  school  which  was  reported  to 
have  a  similar  plan  in  force.  In  this  case,  we  were  not 
favorably  impressed.  The  attitude  of  the  pupils  seemed 
different.  There  was  much  more  noise  and  less  evidence 
of  self-control.  We  saw  a  good  many  examples  of  rudeness 
and  some  scuffling.  There  was  no  movement  in  file,  but 
there  were  student  monitors  and  we  saw  teachers  admonish- 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS         65 

ing  pupils,  although  we  were  told  that  they  were  not  required 
to  exercise  any  responsibility. 

Next  we  paid  another  visit  to  the  H  -  -  School  and 
asked  the  principal  some  questions  which  had  been  sug- 
gested by  our  visits  and  by  the  letters  which  we  had  re- 
ceived in  reply  to  our  inquiries.  Following  are  the  ques- 
tions and  his  replies : 

1.  Is  there  anything  peculiar  in  the  home  training  or 
previous  experience  of  your  pupils,  which  accounts  for  their 
response  to  the  plan  in  operation  ? 

'  I  think  not.  This  is  an  average  high  school,  as  far  as 
the  personnel  of  its  students  is  concerned.' 

2.  How  do  you  account  for  the  difference  in  attitude  and 
behavior  between  your  own  students  and  those  of  other 
schools  where  the  plan  has  not  succeeded? 

'  There  are  probably  several  reasons.  One  of  them  may 
be  a  difference  in  preparation.  We  discussed  the  matter 
very  thoroughly  in  our  teachers'  meetings,  in  assembly, 
and  in  the  classrooms,  before  we  tried  it.  We  did  not 
try  to  force  it,  but  waited  until  the  great  majority  of  pupils 
and  teachers  were  eager  to  begin. 

Another  reason  may  be  in  the  attitude  of  the  teachers. 
We  realize  that  the  plan  involves  a  hard  test  for  youngsters 
and  that  they  need  help  and  encouragement.  The  great- 
est difficulty  at  first  was  due  to  teachers  who  persisted  in 
taking  matters  out  of  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  and  who 
were  always  watching  for  trouble  and  disciplining  the 
offenders.  Pupils  respond  to  suggestion  readily.  They 
know  now  that  we  have  confidence  in  them.  We  encourage 
them  and  when  something  goes  wrong,  take  them  into 
counsel  and  help  them  to  correct  the  trouble. 

E.    T.    PROB. 5 


66  PROBLEMS    OF   DISCIPLINE 

Another  difference  may  be  in  the  understanding  of  the 
plan.  Some  failures  are  due  to  an  attempt  to  deal  with  it 
as  a  mechanical  scheme,  whereas  it  is  really  a  matter  of 
ideals.  The  essential  point  is  not  absence  of  teachers  or 
informality  of  movement.  It  is  desire  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  to  depend  upon  themselves.  The  other  features 
naturally  follow. 

Perhaps  the  chief  difference  is  due  to  the  importance 
which  teachers  attach  to  the  purpose  aimed  at.  We  believe 
that  one  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  school  is  to 
develop  ideals  and  habits  which  are  needed  in  the  good 
citizen.  One  of  these  is  to  attend  to  one's  own  affairs 
without  interfering  with  other  people.  From  this  point  of 
view,  the  question  was  not  the  adoption  of  this  scheme  or 
that,  but,  'How  can  we  train  pupils  to  be  self-directing?' 
We  have  taken  this  training  to  be  a  definite  responsibility, 
a  test  of  our  success.  Therefore  we  have  met  the  various 
difficulties  which  have  arisen  not  as  signs  that  pupils  can- 
not be  made  responsible  for  their  own  conduct,  but  as 
factors  in  our  problem  which  must  be  studied. ": 

"We  recommend  "  -  the  committee  continues  —  "  that 
the  plan  as  carried  out  in  the  H-  -  School  be  adopted, 
provided  that,  after  discussion,  at  least  four  fifths  of  the 
teachers  approve.  If  approved,  we  recommend  that  the 
subject  be  taken  up  carefully  with  the  pupils  in  a  series  of 
assemblies,  followed  by  discussions  in  class  meetings.  We 
suggest  that  a  committee  of  pupils  visit  the  H  -  -  School, 
talk  with  the  pupils  there,  and  then  tell  our  school  whin 
they  have  seen  and  heard.  We  recommend  that  the  plan 
be  put  in  operation  when  a  large  majority  of  the  pupils 
show  a  strong  desire  for  it." 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE.  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS          67 

PROBLEM  64.  —  In  marking  a  set  of  examination  papers,  a 
teacher  notices  a  peculiar  mistake  and,  a  little  later,  she  finds 
exactly  the  same  error  in  another  paper.  She  therefore  compares 
the  two  papers  and  finds  that  parts  of  them  are  almost  identical. 
The  similarity  is  too  perfect  to  be  accidental  and,  since  the 
abler  student  sits  in  front  of  the  other,  she  is  forced  to  con- 
clude that  both  have  shared  in  the  deception. 

In  accordance  with  her  usual  practice,  she  marks  both 
papers  "zero"  and  notifies  the  two  pupils  to  see  her  at  the 
close  of  school.  When  confronted  with  the  evidence,  one 
admits  that,  at  the  request  of  the  other,  she  passed  back 
the  sheets  as  she  finished  them.  She  protests  against  the 
mark  given  her  and,  when  told  that  a  person  who  helps 
another  to  cheat  is  just  as  guilty  as  the  cheater,  she  says 
it  isn't  fair,  that  she  would  have  been  considered  a  snob 
if  she  had  refused  the  request.  The  other  girl  says  that 
she  copied  only  a  small  part  of  the  paper  and  she  ought 
not  to  be  marked  "zero."  The  teacher  says  that  cheating 
is  a  grave  "ffense  and  that,  in  addition  to  the  mark,  there 
will  be  a  severe  penalty.  To  this  the  pupil  retorts  that 
lots  of  the  pupils  do  the  same  thing  and  she  doesn't  see 
anything  very  bad  about  it.  Her  brother  has  told  her  how 
the  students  fool  their  professors  at  college. 

Our  teacher  sees  that  punishment  alone  will  not  change 
the  girls'  attitude,  and  she  fears  that  they  are  right  in  their 
estimate  of  class  sentiment.  She  feels  the  need  of  reflec- 
tion upon  the  problem,  so  she  tells  the  girls  to  think  the 
matter  over  and  they  will  discuss  it  further  the  next  day. 
She  detests  cheating,  but  she  knows  that  there  was  plenty 
of  it  when  she  was  in  school,  and  she  recognizes  that  little 
will  be  accomplished  by  merely  punishing  the  occasional 
cases  which  are  managed  so  crudely  as  to  make  detection 


68  PROBLEMS   OF   DISCIPLINE 

easy.  So  long  as  class  sentiment  tolerates  cheating,  drastic 
punishment  will  probably  make  pupils  more  wary.  She 
must  find  a  way  to  make  cheating  contemptible  in  the  eyes 
of  the  students. 

She  decides  that  she  ought  first  to  understand  the  pupils' 
point  of  view,  so  she  invites  a  few  of  the  clear-headed  mem- 
bers of  the  class  to  meet  her,  explains  that  she  has  dis- 
covered some  cases  of  cheating  and  wants  to  know  what  the 
class  think  about  it.  Most  of  the  pupils  say  that  they 
don't  cheat  themselves,  but  nobody  thinks  much  about  it 
because  it  is  so  common.  They  agree  that  a  pupil  who  re- 
fuses to  loan  his  paper  or  whisper  the  answer  when  asked 
to  do  so  is  considered  a  "goody-goody."  Some  of  the 
cheating  is  just  for  the  fun  of  fooling  the  teacher. 

She  then  takes  the  problem  up  with  the  class.  She  asks 
if  anyone  knows  of  a  case  when  a  baseball  game  was  won 
by  cheating.  Some  cases  are  described.  "Does  our 
team  know  those  tricks?"  she  asks.  "They  know  them 
but  they  wouldn't  use  them,"  answers  a  boy.  "But  why 
not?  There  might  be  a  close  game,  when,  by  cheating  a 
little  the  game  would  be  saved."  "But  we'd  feel  mean. 
We'd  rather  lose,"  he  protests.  "Everybody  would  say 
that  we  couldn't  win  fairly."  "  But  suppose  nobody  knew 
except  the  player  who  cheated."  "Well,  if  we  found  him 
out,  we'd  kick  him  off  the  team,  and  if  we  didn't,  he'd 
kick  himself,  if  he  is  any  sort  of  a  fellow.  He'd  know  he 
was  yellow,  and  all  of  our  fellows  are  good  sports."  "How 
about  other  games,"  she  asks,  "tennis  or  cards?"  The 
class  agrees  that  the  principle  is  the  same  —  no  fun  in  win- 
ning unless  you  do  it  fairly. 

"Well,   do  you    feel    the   same  way  about  cheating   in 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS         69 

school?"  No  answer.  "If  you  were  working  for  a  prize, 
would  you  be  satisfied  to  get  it  by  cheating?  "  There  is  a 
general  shaking  of  heads.  One  pupil  says:  "That  would 
be  just  like  playing  a  game."  "But  it  is  different  to  cheat 
the  teacher,  I  suppose."  The  class  looks  a  little  em- 
barrassed and  somewhat  puzzled.  Finally  one  says:  "It 
does  seer,  different.  You  see  the  teacher  is  there  to  stop 
cheating.  She  isn't  in  the  same  class  with  you."  "I  see," 
says  the  teacher.  "Cheating  her  is  like  stealing  apples. 
It  is  rather  exciting  because  you  may  be  caught,  and  it  is 
good  fun  to  fool  the  older  person,  when  it  would  be  mean 
to  cheat  against  one  of  your  own  number."  Several  pupils 
nod.  Others  look  doubtful.  "Now  what  is  the  teacher  try- 
ing to  do ? "  she  goes  on.  "To  help  us  to  learn,"  someone 
says.  "So  when  you  cheat  her,  you  are  trying  to  beat  her 
in  her  efforts  to  help  you.  Who  is  really  being  cheated, 
do  you  think?"  "We  are,"  answer  several.  "Now  see 
here,  boys  and  girls.  I  really  want  to  help  you  to  succeed. 
If  you  deceive  me,  making  me  believe  that  you  know  more 
than  you  do,  it  is  rather  stupid,  isn't  it?  I  can  understand 
the  fun  of  fooling  the  teacher  when  she  is  trying  to  catch 
someone,  but  it  seems  rather  mean  as  well  as  stupid  to  fool 
her  if  she  is  just  trying  to  help  you.  I  think  we  ought  to 
work  together,  don't  you?"  They  nod.  "And  wouldn't 
you  feel  prouder  of  the  class  if  it  should  stand  for  no  cheat- 
ing, for  earning  honestly  what  you  get?" 

There  is  general  assent. 

The  teacher  writes  on  the  board  :  "We  stand  for  fair  play 
and  honest  work."  "Shall  we  make  that  our  class  motto?" 
she  asks.  "Those  who  want  to  vote  for  it  say  'Aye'; 
those  opposed,  'No.'  It  is  a  unanimous  vote." 


70  PROBLEMS   OF   DISCIPLINE 

PROBLEM  55.  —  A  high  school  teacher  is  the  faculty  member  of 
a  literary  society,  membership  in  which  is  highly  prized.  New 
members  are  admitted  by  majority  vote.  Candidates  for  ad- 
mission are  required  to  read  an  original  composition.  At  one 
of  the  meetings,  the  son  of  a  junk  dealer  whose  manners  and  per- 
sonal appearance  have  made  him  unpopular,  reads  an  essay 
which  is  far  superior  to  any  of  the  others.  When  the  votes 
are  counted,  it  is  found  that  three  candidates  have  been  elected, 
but  the  unpopular  boy  lacks  several  votes  of  receiving  a  ma- 
jority. 

One  of  the  members  immediately  protests,  saying  that 
C.'s  composition  was  the  best,  and  appealing  to  the  teacher's 
judgment.  She  says  that,  in  her  opinion,  the  essay  was 
one  of  the  best  pieces  of  work  by  a  high  school  student 
that  she  has  ever  heard.  Then  someone  moves  that 
another  vote  be  taken.  The  motion  is  carried  although 
many  of  the  students  refrain  from  voting.  When  the 
ballots  are  counted,  the  result  is  found  to  be  the  same 
as  before.  The  boy  who  made  the  protest  now  declares 
that  he  will  not  be  a  member  of  a  snobbish  society  and  starts 
to  leave  the  room.  The  teacher  interposes,  saying  that  it 
will  injure  the  club  and  the  school  if  the  matter  is  allowed 
to  rest  with  a  decision  which  some  of  the  members  consider 
unjust.  She  suggests  that  the  action  taken  be  rescinded 
and  that  the  election  be  postponed  to  a  special  meeting, 
thus  giving  time  for  careful  consideration.  This  plan  is 
adopted  and  the  rest  of  the  day's  program  is  carried  out. 

During  the  next  few  days,  several  pupils  come  voluntarily 
to  discuss  the  matter  with  the  teacher,  and  she  consults 
others  on  her  own  initiative.  One  pupil  says:  "C.  would 
spoil  the  society.  He  is  so  unbearably  conceited,  he  would 
talk  all  the  time  just  as  he  does  in  class."  Another  argues : 
"He  isn't  really  smart.  He  just  works  all  the  time.  He 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS         71 

has  probably  been  working  on  that  composition  for  a  month 
just  to  force  himself  in."  Another  says:  "You  can't  snub 
him.  He  never  seems  to  know  when  he  isn't  wanted." 
Another  member  declares:  "He  isn't  clean.  If  fellows 
like  C.  are  coming  into  this  club,  I  shall  resign." 

The  teacher  thinks  the  matter  over  with  care.  She 
feels  that,  in  justice  to  the  boy,  he  ought  to  be  admitted 
but  she  is  aware  that  the  descriptions  of  his  disagreeable 
personal  characteristics  are  based  on  fact.  She  must  try 
to  help  him  to  overcome  them.  She  considers  the  possi- 
bility of  insisting  on  his  admission  and  even  refusing  to 
remain  a  member  of  the  society  unless  this  is  done,  but 
on  reflection  she  sees  that  such  action  would  merely  be 
dodging  the  chief  problem.  She  will  have  to  try  to  lead 
these  boys  and  girls  to  adopt  sound  ideals  in  their  relation- 
ships with  other  people. 

At  the  special  meeting  the  teacher  says:  "Before  we 
vote  again  for  new  members,  I  think  we  ought  to  settle 
some  questions  about  the  aims  of  the  society.  My  first 
question  is  this :  '  Is  the  chief  purpose  of  the  club  to  give 
pleasure  to  the  members  or  has  it  some  more  important 
purpose?''  Several  views  are  expressed,  among  them: 
"To  help  us  to  write  better."  "To  help  us  to  understand 
and  enjoy  good  literature."  "To  develop  literary  ability 
in  the  school." 

"What  should  be  the  conditions  of  membership?"  she 
asks  next.  Various  answers  are  given,  most  of  them  equiv- 
alent to  "ability  to  write  well."  One  says:  "It  won't  do 
to  admit  members  who  don't  fit  in."  Nodding  of  heads 
indicates  that  this  appeals  to  most  of  the  members. 
"Why?"  asks  the  teacher.  "Because  we  won't  care  so 


72  PROBLEMS    OF   DISCIPLINE 

much  for  the  club  and  we  won't  do  as  good  work,  unless  we 
work  together.  If  we  take  in  people  who  don't  fit,  there 
will  be  two  parties  instead  of  a  team." 

"Would  it  be  wise  to  admit  members  who  haven't  much 
ability  or  interest  in  writing,  because  they  are  congenial?" 
The  general  sentiment  is  negative.  "Why?"  "Because 
nobody  would  take  pride  in  being  a  member.  People  want 
to  get  in  because  they  have  to  work  for  it." 

"Would  it  be  a  good  thing  to  have  it  understood  in  the 
school  that  some  people  could  not  hope  to  become  members, 
no  matter  how  well  they  might  write?"  This  causes  a 
good  deal  of  discussion.  One  member  says  that  if  social 
standing  were  considered,  the  club  would  get  the  reputation 
of  being  snobbish,  that  in  a  public  school  everybody  ought 
to  have  a  chance. 

The  teacher  then  says :  "We  are  facing  one  of  the  great 
problems  which  every  democratic  organization  has  to  meet. 
We  believe  in  a  general  way  that  everyone  ought  to  have 
the  same  chance,  but  naturally  we  have  dislikes  and  prej- 
udices. It  is  easy  to  form  into  classes  or  groups,  but  if  we 
do  so,  the  groups  do  not  understand  each  other  and  soon 
come  to  dislike  each  other.  Then  we  have  antagonism 
instead  of  cooperation.  Some  of  the  wisest  men  have 
thought  about  this  problem  and  nobody  has  solved  it,  be- 
cause it  is  human  nature  to  be  more  interested  in  one's 
self  and  one's  friends  than  in  the  other  fellow.  One  of 
these  wise  men  has  proposed  an  ideal  for  the  members  of 
a  democratic  organization  which  I  like  best  of  all  that  I 
have  read.  It  is  that  each  member  should  feel  an  interest 
in  helping  another  to  make  the  best  of  himself.  He  may 
not  wish  to  be  like  the  other  fellow,  but  he  will  not  despise 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS         73 

him  or  try  to  prevent  his  success.  He  will  try  to  help 
him  to  overcome  his  difficulties  and  to  do  his  best. 

Now  how  can  we  solve  this  problem  for  our  society? 
We  want  our  organization  to  be  of  the  greatest  possible 
value  to  the  school.  We  want  to  do  all  that  we  can  to 
encourage  those  who  have  the  capacity  for  good  literary 
work  to  develop  it.  We  don't  want  to  shut  the  door 
against  anyone  who  has  literary  talent,  and  yet  we  must 
have  members  who  can  work  together  heartily  if  we  are 
to  do  our  best  work.  Have  you  any  suggestions?" 

One  member  says  :  "  It  seems  rather  silly  for  thirty  people 
to  be  afraid  of  one.  If  we  really  take  an  interest  in  the 
new  member  and  admire  his  work,  we  can  probably  help 
him  to  change  the  things  which  make  people  dislike  him. 
He  will  have  to  overcome  them  some  tune,  or  he  won't 
be  able  to  make  the  best  of  himself.  It  would  be  a  fine 
thing  if  our  club  could  help  to  set  him  right."  Another 
says  :  "Why  not  have  an  understanding  with  new  members 
that,  besides  meeting  the  literary  test,  members  of  the  club 
must  be  good  club  members  and  work  well  with  the  rest? 
WTe  might  admit  candidates  who  pass  the  literary  test  but 
not  make  them  full  members  until  they  have  shown  ability 
to  work  well  with  the  crowd." 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  THE  CHILD'S  ATTITUDE 

1.  The  teacher  should  aim  to  have  the  child  understand  and 
become  interested  in  the  purpose  of  a  requirement. 

2.  Confidence  in  the  good  will  and  ability  of  pupils  is  stimu- 
lating to  effort.     Distrust  often  has  the  opposite  effect. 

3.  The  teacher  should  aim  to  develop  self-direction. 

4.  Restrictions  upon  voluntary  individual  action  should  be 
made  only  when  the  welfare  of  the  individual  or  of  the 
group  clearly  makes  this  necessary.     Social  behavior  does 


74  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

not  develop  where  children  merely  follow  commands.  A 
sense  of  responsibility  cannot  grow  unless  there  is  oppor- 
tunity for  exercising  it. 

5.  In  attempting  to  place   responsibility    upon   pupils,   care 
should  be  taken  not  to  give  them  more  than  they  can  carry 
successfully.     Failure  is  discouraging.     Success  is  stimu- 
lating. 

6.  In  attempting  to  correct  a  fault,  the  teacher  should  be 
careful  not  to  discourage  a  valuable  attitude  which  is  asso- 
ciated with  it.  , 

7.  The  teacher  must  be  careful  not  to  -misjudge  a  pupil's 
motive. 

8.  An  enforced  apology  is  valueless.     It  is  usually  prompted 
by  a  desire  to  humiliate  the  offender.     It  does  not  change 
his  attitude,  except  for  the  worse. 

9.  Voluntary  conformity  to  standards  of  the  group  is  a  more 
valuable  social  attitude  than  response  to  a  stronger  per- 
sonality or  acquiescence  through  fear  of  consequences. 

10.  Many  offenses  are  more  effectively  handled  through  ap- 
peal to  public  sentiment  than  through  attempts  to  catch 
and  punish  the  culprit. 

11.  Pupils  should  learn  to  help  one  another.     The  development 
of  individuals  may  be  made  a  class  problem. 

12.  Probably  the  most  important  duty  of  the  teacher  is  the 
cultivation  of  ideals  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.     Habits 
developed  by  external  control  are  apt  to  break  down  when 
conditions   change.     Ideals,   sincerely   held,    may   have  a 
permanent  influence. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  56. — A  boy  in  Miss  A.'s  class  is  whipped  by  two  boys 
in  a  higher  grade.  The  whipping  took  place  on  the  school 
grounds.  The  next  day,  Miss  A.  sends  for  the  two  boys  and  ques- 
tions them.  Their  only  reply  is:  "I  don't  know."  After  de- 
taining them  after  school  for  four  days,  they  still  refuse  to  talk. 
Miss  A.  feels  that  if  she  lets  them  go  without  an  explanation, 
they  will  boast  that  they  have  "put  it  over  on  her."  She  is 
anxious  to  settle  the  matter  without  appealing  to  higher 
authority. 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS          75 

PROBLEM  57.  —  In  a  sixth-grade  class,  there  is  a  boy  whom  the 
teacher  suspects  of  smoking  and  other  bad  habits.  His  attitude 
in  the  classroom  is  apparently  satisfactory,  but  she  knows  that 
his  influence  upon  the  other  boys  is  harmful.  Discussions  of 
the  dangers  of  evil  companionship  seem  to  bring  no  good  result. 

PROBLEM  68.  —  At  a  teachers'  meeting  at  the  beginning  of  a 
school  year,  it  is  suggested  that  teachers  give  special  attention 
to  the  problem  of  developing  initiative  and  power  of  self-direc- 
tion. The  principal  remarks  that  this  concerns  only  teachers 
of  the  third  grade  and  above,  as  little  children  must  obviously 
be  controlled  by  adults.  He  thinks  that  in  the  kindergarten 
and  first  two  grades,  the  task  of  the  teachers  is  to  develop  habits 
of  obedience.  Some  of  the  teachers  of  these  grades  protest 
that  even  the  youngest  children  can  learn  to  be  self-directing  in 
many  ways.  The  principal  says :  "  You  will  have  to  prove  it 
to  me.  You  may  have  a  free  hand  for  this  term,  but  I  want 
to  see  results." 

PROBLEM  59.  —  A  boy  mimics  the  teacher,  repeating  her  words 
in  a  tone  audible  to  most  of  the  children.  The  teacher  hears 
him  and  is  very  angry.  She  sends  him  to  the  principal  with  a 
note  saying  that  he  has  been  unbearably  impudent  and  she  will 
not  have  him  in  her  class  until  he  has  apologized  publicly. 

PROBLEM  60.  —  A  young  teacher  visits  the  class  of  an  experi- 
enced teacher.  The  latter  has  the  practice  of  dismissing  her 
class  by  giving  commands,  thus:  "Girls,  one."  Girls  are 
expected  to  turn  in  their  seats.  "  Two."  Girls  rise  and  face 
the  rear.  "  Three."  Girls  pass  to  the  coat  room.  "  Boys, 
one,"  etc.  The  visiting  teacher  has  had  a  less  formal  method 
of  dismissal  but  is  interested  in  the  plan  observed  and  puts  it 
into  effect  in  her  own  classroom.  At  the  next  visit  of  the  super- 
intendent, he  asks  the  reason  for  the  change.  She  is  surprised 
because  she  had  expected  to  make  a  good  impression.  He  asks 
her  to  think  the  matter  over  and  tell  him  which  method  is  best 
and  why. 

PROBLEM  61.  —  A  teacher  prepares  for  an  examination  by 
having  textbooks  brought  to  the  front  of  the  room,  and  an- 
nouncing that  anyone  who  is  caught  looking  at  another  paper 


76  PROBLEMS   OF  DISCIPLINE 

or  communicating  with  anyone  else  will  be  required  to  put  his 
paper  in  the  waste  basket.  He  patrols  the  room  during  the 
examination  and  destroys  the  paper  of  a  pupil  who  signals  to 
another  for  the  purpose  of  borrowing  an  eraser.  Nevertheless 
some  pupils  succeed  in  cheating. 

PROBLEM  62.  —  A  boy  of  thirteen  hates  school,  plays  truant 
occasionally,  and  makes  little  effort. 

PROBLEM  63.  —  A  new  high  school  building  soon  shows  evidence 
of  deterioration.  Desks  are  scratched  and  cut,  varnish  is  worn 
off  chair  rails,  furniture  is  broken,  and  walls  are  badly  soiled. 
The  principal  asks  the  teachers  to  make  an  earnest  effort  to 
solve  the  problem. 

PROBLEM  64.  —  A  child  is  habitually  dirty  and  unkempt,  is 
sullen  and  uncommunicative.  Other  children  avoid  him. 

PROBLEM  65.  —  A  senior  class  in  the  high  school  has  been  di- 
vided into  debating  teams.  On  the  day  preceding  the  first 
debate,  the  teacher  overhears  a  girl  say :  "  We've  got  to  win 
this  debate ;  I  made  a  bet  of  a  soda  with  Helen."  The  teacher 
realizes  that  she  has  the  desired  interest  on  the  part  of  the  de- 
bating class,  but  she  is  dismayed  at  the  outcome.  She  is  in- 
clined to  think  that  more  than  one  bet  has  been  made.  She  won- 
ders whether  she  should  ignore  the  bets,  call  off  the  debates, 
give  strict  command  that  there  is  to  be  no  betting,  or  what? 

PROBLEM  66.  —  A  school  song  is  written  by  a  talented  high 
school  student  and  is  set  to  music  by  the  instructor  but  the 
students  show  little  enthusiasm  for  it.  They  delight  in  a  song 
written  by  another  pupil  although  the  words  are  doggerel,  the 
theme  mere  boasting,  and  the  language  very  inferior.  The  music 
is  a  popular  rag-time  tune.  They  are  almost  unanimously 
in  favor  of  adopting  the  second  song  as  the  school  song  and  ask 
to  have  it  on  the  graduation  program.  The  music  teacher  and 
some  of  the  English  teachers  realize  that  they  have  not  succeeded 
in  accomplishing  purposes  which  are  prominently  stated  in  the 
course  of  study. 

PROBLEM  67.  —  During  a  fire  drill  children  are  orderly  while 
under  the  eye  of  a  teacher,  but  talk  when  she  cannot  see  them. 


CHILD'S  ATTITUDE,  SELF-DIRECTION,  IDEALS          77 

Some  push,  others  loiter.  They  regard  the  drill  as  a  routine 
which  does  not  call  for  any  individual  responsibility. 

PROBLEM  68.  —  The  subject  of  class  discussion  is  "  Immigra- 
tion." Most  of  the  boys  and  girls  are  of  American  parentage 
but  the  father  of  a  Polish  boy  is  just  taking  out  naturalization 
papers  and  another  member  of  the  class  is  an  Italian.  A 
snobbish  attitude  is  taken  by  a  few  of  the  pupils.  A  hurt  look 
comes  into  the  eyes  of  the  two  foreigners  but  the  teacher  is  the 
only  one  who  notices  it. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapter  XI. 
Earhart,  L.  B.,  Types  of  Teaching,  Chapter  XI. 
Bagley,  W.  C.,  School  Discipline,  Chapters  I,  V,  VI,  VII,  XIV. 
Morehouse,  F.  M.,  The  Discipline  of  the  School,  Chapter  XV. 
Sechrist,  F.  K.,  Education  and  the  General  Welfare,  Chapter  XV. 
Dewey,  J.,  Democracy  and  Education,  Chapters  III,  XXVI. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  Chapter  XIV. 
Strayer,  G.  D.   and  Engelhardt,  N.,  The  Classroom  Teacher. 


CHAPTER  V 
PROBLEMS  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER 

SELECTION  OF  EDUCATIONAL  MATERIAL;  RELATION  OF 
SUBJECT  MATTER  TO  EDUCATIONAL  PURPOSE;  MAKING 
A  COURSE  OF  STUDY;  How  TO  TEST  THE  VALUE  OF 
SUBJECT  MATTER 

PROBLEM  69.  —  A  teacher  is  at  work  upon  her  lesson  plans. 
She  is  about  to  introduce  the  class  to  long  division  and  is  puzzling 
over  the  selection  of  suitable  problems.  The  textbook  presents 
the  new  process  by  working  out  an  abstract  example.  Follow- 
ing this  is  a  large  number  of  similar  examples  and  then  several 
pages  of  problems  many  of  which  are  quite  artificial.  The 
teacher  feels  that  this  material  is  not  satisfactory  but  is  finding 
it  difficult  to  think  of  anything  better. 

AT  this  point  her  roommate  comes  in  and  rallies  her  on 
the  seriousness  with  which  she  takes  this  lesson  planning. 
She  says:  "What's  the  use  of  wasting  your  evenings  trying 
to  improve  on  the  textbook?  That  isn't  the  teacher's 
business.  We  have  troubles  enough  managing  children 
and  getting  them  to  learn  what  is  in  the  books.  I  can't 
bother  my  head  to  decide  what  to  teach.  That  is  the  super- 
intendent's business.  If  we  are  told  what  the  children 
are  expected  to  know  at  the  end  of  the  term,  we  can  pound 
it  into  their  heads.  Here,  look  at  my  plan  book.  If  you 
would  make  out  yours  the  same  way,  you  would  have  time 
to  get  more  fun  out  of  life." 

Our  teacher  opens  the  book  and  finds  a  record  like  this : 

78 


SELECTION   OF  EDUCATIONAL  MATERIAL  79 

Reading:  Begin  page  114,  line  9. 
Arithmetic:  Problems,  page  211. 
History :  Chapter  V  to  bottom  of  page  84. 
Geography :  Finish  Europe. 
Spelling:  Lesson  10. 


"I  divide  the  assignment  for  the  term,"  the  roommate 
adds,  "so  as  to  leave  a  few  weeks  for  review  at  the  end. 
That's  all  there  is  to  it." 

"Beautifully  simple,"  observes  the  first  teacher,  "but 
is  it  education?  I  can't  forget  that  I  have  the  lives  of  forty 
children  in  my  hands  for  a  year.  I  am  expected  to  do  my 
part  to  prepare  them  for  citizenship.  Nobody  seems  to 
know  just  how  this  is  to  be  done,  but  I  can't  believe  that  we 
can  make  citizens  by  just  covering  ground  in  a  textbook 
which  is  written  for  sale  through  the  whole  country  and 
without  having  in  mind  the  specific  needs  of  individual 
children.  Doing  all  these  artificial  examples  doesn't  seem 
to  fit  children  to  meet  situations  outside  the  school.  They 
seem  to  be  learning  to  do  things  which  the  school  calls 
for  without  fully  comprehending  them.  Apparently  they 
are  not  getting  practical  experience  and  if  I  am  right  they 
are  wasting  valuable  time." 

"Well,  why  should  we  worry?"  retorts  the  other.  "We 
girls  can't  expect  to  do  better  than  the  'big  bugs'  in  edu- 
cation, can  we?"  "No,  except  perhaps  in  our  own  jobs. 
We  have  one  great  advantage,  I  think,  and  that  is  that  we 
are  with  the  children  all  the  time.  We  know  them  indi- 
vidually and  know  how  they  respond  to  the  material  which 
we  teach  them.  The  people  who  write  the  textbooks 
have  to  shoot  in  the  air,  so  to  speak.  If  we  don't  adapt 
their  material  to  our  own  pupils  and  supplement  it  by  mate- 


8o  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

rial  which  we  collect  ourselves  for  their  special  use,  why 
should  it  reach  the  mark?" 

"What  are  you  working  on  now?"  asks  the  roommate. 
"Long  division."  "Well,  surely  that  doesn't  need  any 
adaptation.  Long  division  is  just  long  division.  The 
children  have  just  got  to  learn  how  to  do  it  and  practice 
until  they  can  do  it  without  mistakes.  The  textbook  gives 
you  all  the  practice  problems  you  need,  I  should  think." 

"That's  the  way  it  used  to  look  to  me,"  our  teacher 
answers,  "but  I  find  two  difficulties.  Some  of  the  children 
don't  learn  to  divide  accurately,  even  with  endless  practice, 
and  others,  who  learn  the  process  perfectly  and  delight  in  it, 
don't  seem  to  know  when  to  use  it,  especially  when  the 
problem  is  of  a  different  sort  from  those  in  the  book.  They 
seem  just  to  be  learning  a  'stunt'  for  use  in  school.  They 
aren't  interested  in  finding  out  something.  They  are  just 
as  well  satisfied  with  an  absurd  answer  as  a  correct  one, 
until  it  is  marked  wrong." 

"Oh!  Children  have  always  been  like  that  and  always 
will  be,"  objects  the  friend.  "You  are  looking  for  the  mil- 
lennium." "No,  I'm  not,"  retorts  the  other.  "I  don't  ex- 
pect perfect  work  from  children,  but  if  long  division  is  really 
suitable  material  for  fourth  graders,  it  must  be  possible 
for  most  pupils  in  that  grade  to  learn  to  use  it  practically. 
I  notice  that  the  boys  in  my  class  who  sell  papers  or  help 
their  fathers  in  the  store  are  quick  and  accurate  in  making 
change.  They  seem  to  acquire,  through  practical  experi- 
ence, a  confidence  in  dealing  with  situations  requiring  the 
use  of  arithmetical  processes  which  our  school  work  does 
not  give.  I  am  trying  to  think  of  a  way  of  taking  up  long 
division  which  will  help  the  children  to  master  it  as  a  tool 


SELECTION   OF  EDUCATIONAL  MATERIAL  8 1 

as  these  boys  have  learned  to  calculate  in  their  small  busi- 
ness experience." 

"Have  you  made  any  progress?  "  asks  the  friend.  "Per- 
haps a  little.  One  reason  why  the  boys  learn  to  make 
change  so  well  is  probably  because  they  have  a  strong  mo- 
tive. They  don't  learn  to  make  change  as  an  exercise. 
They  have  to  learn  it  or  they  will  lose  money  or  irritate 
a  customer.  If  I  can  think  of  something  which  my  children 
really  want  to  know  and  which  depends  upon  long  division, 
perhaps  they  will  be  more  eager  to  learn  the  process  and 
will  do  so  with  a  clearer  understanding  of  what  it  is  all 
about  than  if  I  use  the  abstract  example  in  the  book." 

"  There  are  plenty  of  concrete  problems  in  the  book," 
suggests  the  roommate.  "But  not  the  kind  that  I  want. 
They  are  all  made  up  by  the  author.  Nobody  would  ever 
solve  many  of  them  in  real  life,  and  none  of  them  are  real 
problems  for  my  children  in  the  sense  that  they  want  to 
know  the  answers  for  their  own  purposes.  Take  this  one, 
for  example:  'A  man  gives  a  box  of  156  apples  to  12  boys. 
How  many  apples  will  each  boy  receive?'  Children  won't 
be  much  excited  over  that  problem.  Probably  not  one  of 
them  will  ever  be  in  such  a  situation  and  if  it  should  really 
happen,  they  would  probably  distribute  the  apples  one  at  a 
time  and  do  it  more  quickly  than  by  counting  the  boxful 
and  using  long  division." 

"I  wonder  if  fourth-grade  children  ever  have  occasion 
to  use  long  division  for  their  own  purposes,"  the  room- 
mate queries.  "That  is  just  what  I  have  been  trying  to 
decide,"  says  the  first  teacher.  "As  a  matter  of  fact,  I 
doubt  whether  many  people  have  occasion  to  use  the  pro- 
cess very  frequently.  The  only  occasion  that  I  can  think 

E.    T.    PROS.  —  6 


82  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

of  when  I  have  used  it  this  fall  is  in  working  out  averages 
and  percentages  in  my  monthly  reports."  "Do  you  think 
long  division  ought  to  be  postponed  until  later  in  the 
course?"  asks  the  other.  "It  is  always  taught  as  early 
as  the  fourth  grade.  There  must  be  a  reason  for  that." 
"I  don't  know,"  is  the  reply.  "It  would  seem  sensible 
to  postpone  it  until  children  have  a  need  for  it,  but  there 
may  be  a  danger  in  such  a  plan.  I  was  talking  recently  with 
a  teacher  who  taught  for  several  years  in  a  private  school, 
where  they  tried  just  that  scheme.  It  seemed  to  work 
splendidly  for  a  time.  The  children  were  enthusiastic 
in  their  interest  and  became  very  skillful  in  thinking  out 
and  executing  their  own  problems,  but  in  the  upper  grades, 
when  they  were  nearly  ready  to  enter  another  school, 
it  seemed  necessary  for  them  to  learn  some  of  the  things 
which  had  been  omitted  but  which  they  would  be  expected 
to  know.  This  teacher  said  she  had  a  terrible  time  in 
teaching  long  division.  The  children  found  it  mere  drudg- 
ery. Now,  you  know,  fourth-grade  children  like  to  work 
at  long  division  and  often  work  out  absurdly  long  examples 
just  for  the  fun  of  it.  It  seems  as  though  there  were  a 
period  when  children  are  interested  in  such  mechanical  work 
and  can  easily  master  it.  If  that  is  so,  we  ought  to  take 
advantage  of  it,  but  the  difficulty  is  to  make  it  mean  any- 
thing to  them,  to  have  them  think  what  they  are  doing 
instead  of  merely  juggle  with  figures.  There  ought  to  be 
some  very  careful  experiments  to  determine  whether  it  is 
really  important  that  children  should  learn  this  abstract 
work  far  beyond  their  powers  of  applying  it  practically. 
In  the  meantime,  I  must  teach  it  and  use  the  best  material 
that  I  can  find  for  making  it  real." 


SELECTION    OF    EDUCATIONAL   MATERIAL  83 

"Still  I  don't  see  how  you  are  going  to  find  anything 
better  than  the  problems  in  the  book,"  objects  the  room- 
mate. "I  am  going  to  begin,"  the  first  teacher  answers, 
"by  thinking  of  what  children  do  and  think  about  in  and 
out  of  school  and  see  if  I  can  find  any  situations  where  long 
division  would  be  useful.  Then  I  can  bring  about  the  situa- 
tion in  class  and  let  the  children  discover  the  need  of  dividing 
and  realize  that  they  don't  know  how.  If  I  can  reach  that 
point  they  will  be  ready  to  learn  the  process  for  a  purpose, 
and  after  they  have  used  it  in  solving  their  own  problems, 
we  can  probably  carry  it  further  without  losing  sight  of 
its  meaning." 

A  few  days  later,  the  fourth-grade  teacher  is  again  at 
work  but  with  a  different  expression  on  her  face.  The 
roommate  notices  the  change  and  says:  "Don't  keep  me 
in  suspense.  Evidently  the  fourth  graders  have  met 
long  division.  How  did  it  happen?"  "Not  quite  as  I 
expected,"  the  other  replies.  "I  had  been  trying  to  dis- 
cover a  way  to  make  the  introduction  and,  after  all,  it  hap- 
pened accidentally.  When  I  went  to  school  the  morning 
after  our  talk,  I  found  a  notice  from  the  principal  saying 
that  the  appropriation  for  supplies  had  been  exhausted  and 
we  should  have  to  manage  for  the  rest  of  the  year  with  those 
already  in  hand.  Immediately  after  the  opening  exercises 
I  explained  the  situation  to  the  children  and  told  them 
that  unless  we  were  very  careful  in  the  use  of  paper  and 
pencils,  we  should  have  nothing  to  work  with  at  the  end  of 
the  term.  I  asked  them  what  we  could  do  to  prevent 
this.  Someone  said:  'Be  careful  not  to  drop  pencils  and 
break  the  points.'  Another  said:  'Be  careful  not  to 
make  mistakes  and  spoil  the  paper.'  Then  one  of  the 


84  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT  MATTER 

children  surprised  me  by  saying :  '  Let's  see  how  much  paper 
there  is  for  each  day  and  then  never  use  any  more  than  that.' 

I  saw  at  once  that  here  was  my  chance,  so  although  my 
program  called  for  a  language  lesson,  I  said  'I  think  that's 
a  fine  idea.  Shall  we  do  it?'  The  class  was  keenly  in- 
terested. They  were  not  thinking  of  arithmetic  at  all, 
but  here  was  a  real  problem. 

We  divided  up  the  work  of  counting  the  supplies,  and 
incidentally  they  discovered  that  a  ream  package  of  paper 
contains  five  hundred  sheets.  The  children  found  that 
we  had  3367  sheets  of  pencil  paper.  After  a  good  deal  of 
puzzling  and  argument  in  which  I  took  very  little  part, 
they  decided  that  they  would  need  to  know  how  many  more 
days  of  school  there  were.  With  the  help  of  a  calendar, 
they  found  that  there  were  47  days. 

Then  the  question  was  before  us :  '  How  many  sheets  can 
we  use  each  day?'  We  decided  to  think  about  this  until 
the  next  day  and  we  agreed  that  it  would  be  fun  to  find 
out  how  to  do  it  ourselves  instead  of  asking  anyone 
at  home  to  help  us.  I  noticed  that  some  of  the  children 
were  working  on  the  puzzle  at  odd  times  during  the  day. 

The  next  morning,  one  of  the  boys  announced  that  he 
knew  pretty  nearly  how  many  sheets  we  could  use  daily. 
There  would  be  a  little  more  than  nine  weeks,  with  five 
school  days  in  each  week.  If  it  were  exactly  nine  weeks, 
there  would  be  374  sheets  for  each  week  and  that  would 
allow  the  use  of  75  sheets  a  day  except  on  Fridays  when 
there  would  be  only  74.  After  he  had  explained  his  plan 
carefully,  the  class  saw  that  this  would  be  nearly  right,  but 
if  we  should  use  75  sheets  a  day,  nothing  would  be  left  for 
the  last  two  weeks. 


SELECTION    OF   EDUCATIONAL   MATERIAL  85 

The  children  agreed  that  the  proper  daily  allowance  was 
less  than  75  sheets  but  there  were  many  different  opinions 
as  to  the  proper  figure.  Some  thought  that  74  sheets  would 
be  right  but  most  of  the  class  thought  that  too  many. 
'Can  you  prove  that  74  is  too  many?'  I  asked.  They 
studied  this  question  for  a  time  and  several  wrong  pro- 
posals were  made. 

Finally  someone  who  had  been  working  with  his  pencil 
announced:  'If  we  use  74  sheets  a  day,  we  should  need 
3478  sheets  for  47  days.'  That  gave  the  clue  to  other 
members  of  the  class  and  in  a  few  minutes  they  had  dis- 
covered that  we  could  use  71  sheets  each  day  and  30  sheets 
would  be  left  over. 

Our  problem  was  done  but  we  still  had  to  work  out  the 
daily  allowances  of  paper  for  ink  and  drawing  paper.  I 
said :  '  Would  you  like  to  have  me  show  you  a  quicker 
way  to  find  the  answer?'  Of  course  they  would,  so  I 
took  the  original  problem  and  showed  them  how  to  find 
how  many  times  47  will  go  in  3367.  They  knew  the  answer 
and  were  quite  excited  when  they  found  that  my  answer 
was  the  same,  although  it  took  only  a  fev;  minutes  to  work 
it  out.  They  worked  it  out  in  the  new  way  for  themselves 
and  then  calculated  the  allowances  of  the  other  kinds  of 
paper. 

The  children  have  become  interested  in  the  process 
and  are  eager  to  have  practice  problems.  I  cannot  tell 
yet  whether  this  method  of  introducing  long  division  will 
have  any  permanent  effect  upon  their  ability  to  divide, 
but  at  this  stage  they  certainly  understand  better  than 
any  of  my  previous  classes  what  long  division  is  for  and 
when  to  use  it." 


86  PROBLEMS    OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

PROBLEM  70.  — A  sixth-grade  teacher,  Miss  E.,  complains  that 
she  cannot  cover  the  work  in  geography  assigned  to  the  grade. 
The  course  of  study  statement  is :  "  Geography  of  South  Amer- 
ica, Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia."  In  the  textbook 
172  pages  are  devoted  to  these  continents.  The  class  is  pro- 
vided with  geographical  readers  also.  The  principal  appoints 
a  committee  of  teachers,  including  Miss  E.,  to  consider  the  sixth- 
grade  assignment  and,  if  it  is  thought  to  be  unsatisfactory,  to 
recommend  definite  changes. 

The  chairman  of  the  committee  first  calls  upon  Miss  E.  to 
explain  her  experience.  She  says:  "I  am  convinced  that 
too  much  material  is  assigned  to  the  sixth  grade.  I  began 
the  year's  work  by  attempting  to  have  the  pupils  master 
the  facts  in  the  textbook  as  we  went  along.  I  had  to  give 
sometimes  three  or  four  days  to  assignments  that  had  been 
intended  for  a  single  lesson  and  when  I  questioned  pupils 
on  the  work  that  we  had  been  over  a  few  weeks  previously, 
I  found  that  they  had  forgotten  a  great  deal  of  it.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  half  year,  I  found  that  we  had  covered 
b'ttle  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  work,  so  I  have  been  going 
more  rapidly  but  the  pupils  are  not  mastering  the  facts. 
I  believe  in  thoroughness  but  that  is  impossible  if  we  pre- 
tend to  cover  so  much  ground.  To-day  I  counted  the 
number  of  separate  facts  mentioned  on  three  pages  of  the 
textbook  which  I  turned  to  at  random,  and  I  found 
about  eighty  facts  on  each  of  two  pages  and  sixty  on  the 
third.  Multiply  60  or  70  by  172  and  see  if  it  doesn't  show 
the  task  to  be  impossible." 

One  of  the  older  teachers  says  :  "Of  course  it's  impossible 
if  you  put  it  that  way.  I  have  been  teaching  the  sixth 
grade  for  a  good  many  years,  but  I  am  sure  that  I  don't 
know  all  the  facts  in  the  textbook." 


SUBJECT   MATTER    AND   PURPOSE  87 

"Then  why  not  cut  down  the  number  of  facts  to  be 
studied  ?  I  don't  see  any  use  in  pretending  to  teach  a  lot 
of  things  when  we  know  they  won't  be  learned.  We  ought 
to  teach  as  much  as  can  be  done  thoroughly  and  put  the 
rest  off  to  the  next  grade." 

Someone  makes  the  objection  that  there  is  the  same 
difficulty  in  other  grade  assignments  and  says  that  the 
proposed  plan  would  make  it  impossible  to  cover  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  world  in  the  elementary  school  course.  One 
teacher  thinks  that  geography  ought  to  be  continued  in  the 
high  school,  but  another  objects  that,  since  so  many  pupils 
never  go  to  high  school,  the  geography  of  the  world  ought 
to  be  covered  in  the  elementary  grades. 

Next,  the  suggestion  is  made  that  the  most  important 
facts  in  the  assignment  of  each  grade  be  agreed  upon  and 
the  rest  eliminated.  The  conference  adjourns  at  this 
point  with  the  understanding  that  all  the  members  of  the 
committee  will  go  over  the  assignment  and  come  to  the  next 
meeting  with  definite  opinions  as  to  which  parts  are  most 
important  and  which  may  be  omitted. 

At  the  next  meeting  it  soon  appears  that  there  is  no  gen- 
eral agreement  upon  the  relative  importance  of  the  various 
topics  treated  in  the  textbook.  Almost  every  item  seems 
to  someone  too  valuable  to  omit  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
hardly  a  statement  receives  unanimous  endorsement  as  an 
essential  element  of  one's  geographical  knowledge.  The 
task  begins  to  look  discouraging,  until  one  of  the  members 
of  the  committee  says  :  "  I  don't  believe  that  the  chief  result 
of  a  study  of  geography  is  a  knowledge  of  facts.  Of  course 
one  must  know  a  good  many  facts  and  is  bound  to  acquire 
them  if  he  has  any  interest  in  the  subject.  He  will  retain 


88  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

them,  too,  if  he  makes  any  use  of  them,  and  if  he  doesn't 
use  them,  he'll  never  miss  them.  I  wonder  if  it  isn't  a 
mistake  to  try  to  load  up  a  child's  mind  with  information 
which  he  may  possibly  use  some  time.  A  great  deal  of 
such  information  is  forgotten  as  we  know,  and  when  a 
person  actually  has  need  of  some  bit  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge, he  usually  has  to  find  out  for  himself  by  asking  ques- 
tions or  consulting  books.  I  don't  believe  we  need  to  worry 
if  our  pupils  do  not  master  all  the  facts  in  the  textbook 
provided  they  acquire  a  real  interest  in  geography  and 
ability  to  make  use  of  maps  and  indexes  to  find  out  the 
answers  to  geographical  questions." 

This  leads  to  a  discussion  of  the  purposes  of  studying 
geography.  Such  suggestions  as  these  are  made :  to  under- 
stand geographical  references  which  one  meets  in  one's 
reading  or  in  conversation,  to  get  ideas  and  information 
needed  in  travel  or  planning  journeys,  to  enable  one  to 
do  business  intelligently  outside  one's  own  community, 
to  enable  one  to  appreciate  one's  own  country,  to  develop 
interest  in  other  lands  and  people,  to  enable  one  to  think 
and  act  intelligently  upon  political  questions  involving 
domestic  and  foreign  problems. 

A  vigorous  discussion  results  in  a  general  agreement  that 
it  is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  learn  in  school  all  the  geograph- 
ical knowledge  that  one  may  need  to  use  and  that  in 
most  cases  the  only  effective  plan  is  to  get  the  information 
when  it  is  needed.  It  is  pointed  out  that  when  one  has  had 
occasion  to  look  up  facts  for  a  particular  purpose,  they  are 
likely  to  stick  in  his  memory.  The  objection  is  made  that 
many  people  never  acquire  the  habit  of  looking  up  geograph- 
ical references  which  they  do  not  understand,  but  read 


SUBJECT  MATTER   AND   PURPOSE  89 

a  newspaper  article,  for  example,  mispronouncing  the  names 
and  having  the  vaguest  possible  ideas  of  the  places  referred 
to.  This  suggests  that  development  of  interest  in  geog- 
raphy and  training  in  working  out  geographical  problems 
should  be  given  much  attention  by  teachers. 

"Are  we  to  discard  the  textbook?"  asks  one  doubtful 
teacher.  "No,"  says  another,  "but  I  think  it  should  be 
used  more  as  a  reference  book  and  less  as  material  for  close 
consecutive  study." 

"How  are  we  to  develop  that  keen  interest  in  other 
states  and  other  lands  which  we  have  been  talking  about?  " 
someone  asks.  "  There  is  so  little  in  the  book  about  any  one 
thing  that  it  is  not  very  exciting  reading  and  does  not  make 
things  real.  It  is  just  a  compendium  of  facts."  "That's 
right,"  says  another.  "The  geographical  readers  are  much 
more  interesting.  I  think  we  ought  to  have  a  class  library 
with  books  of  travel  and  lots  of  pictures.  My  class  got  more 
real  knowledge  of  China  from  a  visit  to  a  museum  than  from 
any  number  of  regular  lessons." 

"Still  I  don't  see  just  how  to  go  to  work,"  says  the 
teacher  who  first  criticized  the  sixth-grade  assignment, 
"  and  what  recommendation  are  we  going  to  make  to  the 
superintendent?"  The  chairman  suggests  that  these 
questions  be  left  for  the  next  meeting.  At  that  time  he 
asks  if  anyone  has  a  definite  plan  to  propose.  One  of  the 
teachers  responds  as  follows : 

"  We  have  agreed  on  the  importance  of  developing  a 
habit  of  attacking  geographical  problems  as  they  arise. 
That  has  suggested  to  me  the  possibility  of  taking  a  series 
of  problems  as  the  basis  of  the  work  of  the  grade.  I  have 
made  a  list  of  such  problems.  There  will  not  be  time,  I 


90  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT  MATTER 

think,  to  study  all  of  them  and  probably  everyone  will 
have  others  to  propose.  Some  will  naturally  be  suggested 
by  current  events  and  I  think  that  it  would  be  well  to  allow 
the  pupils  some  choice.  Here  is  my  list : 

1.  Taking  a  trip  to  South  America,  or  Egypt,  or  any  of  the 
other  countries. 

2.  Geography  in  the  newspaper. 

3.  How  we  get  our  clothing  or  our  food. 

4.  School  children  in  other  lands. 

5.  Making  a  class  collection  of  foreign  post-cards,  pictures, 
etc. 

6.  The  homes  of  foreign-born  members  of  the  class. 

7.  How  business  is  done  with  foreign  countries. 

I  think  that  by  means  of  such  problems  we  could  arouse 
the  interest  and  give  the  training  which  we  desire  to  give. 
At  the  same  time  pupils  would  probably  learn  many  of  the 
facts  which  we  have  been  trying  to  teach  and  many  others. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  children  would  become  sufficiently 
interested  in  foreign  countries  to  read  rather  widely  both 
in  the  textbook  and  in  other  books." 

The  idea  \vins  favor,  various  other  problems  are  suggested, 
and  discussion  shows  that  very  many  of  the  conventional 
facts  will  naturally  be  brought  out  in  the  study. 

"We  are  forgetting  one  thing,"  says  the  teacher  from 
Missouri.  "The  examination!  The  superintendent  will 
call  for  the  location  of  Stockholm  and  the  pupils  will  not 
know  whether  it  is  a  river  in  India  or  an  African  desert." 

It  is  clear  that  an  examination  of  that  sort  would  spoil 
the  whole  scheme.  Therefore  in  the  report  which  the 
chairman  is  authorized  to  make,  he  adds  to  the  statement 
of  purposes  agreed  on  by  the  committee  and  the  list  of 
suggestive  problems,  a  recommendation  that,  if  a  uniform 


SUBJECT   MATTER   AND   PURPOSE  9 1 

examination  is  to  be  given  to  all  of  the  sixth  grades,  it  be 
not  a  catechism  upon  geographical  facts  but  a  test  of  pupils' 
ability  to  work  out  geographical  questions  by  the  use  of 
textbooks,  maps,  and  any  other  available  reference  material. 

PROBLEM  71.  —  A  high  school  teacher  of  history,  who  is  a  can- 
didate for  a  position,  has  an  interview  with  the  superintendent. 
The  latter  asks  him  to  state  his  idea  of  the  purpose  of  teaching 
history  to  high  school  students.  The  teacher  replies  that  the 
chief  purpose  is  to  give  pupils  a  knowledge  of  the  past  which 
will  enable  them  to  understand  the  problems  of  the  present. 
The  superintendent  then  says :  "  In  teaching  a  class  in  American 
history,  what  material  ordinarily  given  in  the  textbooks  do 
you  consider  of  most  value  for  your  purpose?  "  The  teacher 
is  unable  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer.  "  Is  there  any  his- 
torical material  which  is  not  usually  included  in  high  school 
textbooks  which  would  be  of  greater  value  for  your  purpose 
than  some  of  the  usual  material  ?  "  The  teacher  has  no  ready 
answer  to  this.  He  is  mortified  but  excuses  himself  by  saying 
that  he  had  not  expected  such  questions  and  would  need  time 
to  answer  them  satisfactorily.  "  Very  well,"  says  the  super- 
intendent, "suppose  you  take  time  to  reflect  and  send  me  your 
answers  in  a  few  days." 

On  the  way  home,  the  teacher  is  at  first  depressed.  He 
feels  that  he  has  made  a  poor  impression  and  will  probably 
lose  the  position.  He  thinks  that  it  will  be  a  waste  of  time 
to  study  the  superintendent's  questions  and  write  his 
answers.  Such  a  paper,  however  well  done,  will  not  over- 
come the  prejudice  which  his  lack  of  definite  ideas  on  these 
questions  must  have  caused.  He  doubts  whether  any  other 
superintendent  would  ask  such  questions.  Then  he  falls 
to  musing  on  the  problem:  ''What  historical  material  is 
of  most  service  in  understanding  the  present?  Have  I 
been  teaching  anything  which  has  no  such  value?  Do 
the  books  omit  anything  which  would  be  of  especial  value 


Q2  PROBLEMS    OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

for  this  purpose?"  Suddenly  he  says  to  himself:  "I'll 
work  this  out,  position  or  no  position.  I've  been  talking 
glibly  about  teaching  history  as  a  basis  for  understanding 
present  problems  and,  when  I'm  challenged,  I  find  that 
this  is  a  mere  phrase  to  me  without  any  definite  meaning. 
I  believe  that  a  knowledge  of  history  ought  to  help  one  to 
understand  present  problems,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  I 
have  made  very  little  use  of  my  own  knowledge  in  this  way. 
I  may  as  well  admit  that  what  I  have  really  been  aiming  at 
is  a  mastery  of  the  textbook.  What  I  ought  to  do  is  to 
select  the  historical  material  which  fits  the  broader  purpose." 
Setting  to  work,  the  same  evening,  the  teacher  turns 
over  the  leaves  of  the  textbook  in  search  of  topics  which  will 
help  to  interpret  present  problems.  He  finds  the  process 
discouraging.  There  is  a  multitude  of  facts  and  events  set 
forth  as  a  record  of  what  happened  long  ago  —  interesting 
to  anyone  who  enjoys  history  but  suggesting  no  evident 
connection  with  the  life  of  to-day.  Then  it  occurs  to  him 
to  begin  at  the  other  end,  to  consider  what  sort  of  knowledge 
a  person  needs,  to  cope  with  present  problems,  and  then 
to  see  what  history  has  to  offer  of  such  knowledge.  After 
many  hours  of  hard  thinking  and  considerable  revision  of 
his  first  draft,  he  produces  the  following  letter : 

My  dear  Mr.  Avery : 

I  have  done  some  hard  thinking  on  your  questions  and 
here  are  my  answers.  Whether  or  not  you  offer  me  the  position, 
I  am  grateful  to  you  for  making  me  face  problems  which  I  had 
never  recognized. 

I  have  -come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  most  useful  lessons 
of  history  are  a  knowledge  of  human  nature  —  the  way  people 
behave  in  given  circumstances,  —  of  the  important  discoveries 
which  people  have  made  which  have  been  a  benefit  to  mankind 
and  upon  which  our  modern  life  depends,  and  of  the  fruitful 


SUBJECT   MATTER   AND   PURPOSE  93 

ideas  which  have  had  an  important  influence  in  shaping  our 
customs  and  institutions.  The  advantage  of  using  historical 
material  in  developing  such  knowledge  is,  I  think,  that  it  fur- 
nishes us  with  episodes  which  are  more  nearly  complete  than 
we  can  observe  in  current  happenings.  Causes  and  effects  can 
be  more  clearly  distinguished.  Furthermore,  the  situations  are 
usually  less  complex  than  those  of  modern  life  and  are  therefore 
more  easily  understood. 

For  the  study  of  human  nature,  we  ought  to  select  situations 
in  which  such  traits  as  courage,  cowardice,  loyalty,  disloyalty, 
self-sacrifice,  selfishness,  cooperation,  jealousy,  public  spirit, 
individualism,  self-restraint,  indulgence,  thrift,  extravagance, 
toleration,  narrow-mindedness,  leadership,  fair-mindedness, 
prejudice  are  exemplified  and  their  influence  made  apparent. 
For  example,  the  services  of  discoverers,  explorers,  and  pioneers 
in  paving  the  way  for  our  comfortable  mode  of  life  should  be 
appreciated.  The  dependence  of  civilization  upon  the  courage 
and  enterprise  of  the  pioneer  in  whatever  field  ought  to  be 
emphasized.  We  still  have  need  of  pioneers. 

The  struggle  for  independence,  the  political  controversies, 
the  various  wars,  the  economic  problems  can  all  be  taught  as 
situations  involving  many  of  the  elements  which  make  up  our 
difficulties,  present  and  to  come.  If  we  succeed  in  interesting 
the  students  in  the  people  who  took  part  and  in  what  they  did, 
and  if  we  help  them  to  see  similarities  between  the  historical 
situations  and  those  of  the  present,  I  think  we  shall  develop 
sound  ideas  of  human  relationships  and  standards  of  conduct 
which  will  be  permanently  useful. 

The  study  of  history  ought  to  teach  one  to  be  patient  but 
hopeful.  We  are  prone  to  inveigh  against  the  discomforts, 
injustices,  and  evils  of  the  present.  By  contrasting  our  sur- 
roundings with  those  of  our  fathers  we  can  easily  see  that  civil- 
ization is  making  progress.  We  ought  to  show  our  students 
that  these  great  advances  have  taken  time  and  perseverance, 
with  temporary  defeat  and  retrogression.  The  study  should 
not  be  limited  to  mechanical  inventions,  the  effect  of  which  is 
so  easily  perceived,  but  should  include  the  growth  of  our  institu- 
tions, political,  social,  and  economic.  As  examples  we  may 
mention  the  development  of  a  strong  national  government  as 
contrasted  with  the  aggregation  of  mutually  jealous  colonies 


94  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  and  the  growth  of  public 
schools  since  the  days  when  education  was  the  privilege  of  the 
well-to-do. 

You  asked  me  what  material  ordinarily  given  in  the  history 
textbooks  I  had  found  most  useful  in  preparing  pupils  to  under- 
stand present  problems,  and  what  material  not  ordinarily  in- 
cluded could  well  be  substituted  for  the  conventionally  accepted 
matter.  It  seems  to  me,  on  reflection,  that  on  the  whole,  the 
textbook  material  is  too  meager.  In  the  effort  to  keep  the 
books  within  the  limits  of  a  year's  work  and  at  the  same  time  to 
cover  the  most  important  events  in  our  country's  history,  the 
authors  have  reduced  the  story  to  a  bare  outline  and  in  so  doing 
have  eliminated  the  details  which  are  needed  for  vividness  and 
a  sense  of  reality.  If  we  are  to  get  pupils  keenly  interested  in 
real  people  living  real  lives,  we  must  have  something  more  than 
summaries. 

Obviously,  however,  we  shall  not  have  time  to  go  into  great 
detail  in  regard  to  every  phase  of  American  history.  There 
must  be  selection  and  variation  of  emphasis.  Bearing  in  mind 
the  chief  purpose  which  we  have  set  up  for  teaching  history, 
I  make  two  suggestions.  First,  I  should  have  a  large  amount 
of  cursory  reading  to  arouse  interest,  give  a  sense  of  reality,  and 
furnish  a  background.  There  should  be  no  attempt  to  make 
pupils  master  the  details  of  this  reading.  It  should  not  be  done 
for  examination  purposes.  We  know  from  experience  that 
even  when  we  seek  to  have  pupils  master  a  textbook  of  moder- 
ate size,  they  forget  most  of  the  details  very  soon  after  the  exam- 
ination. The  important  thing  is  that  they  should  retain  the 
fruitful  ideas  which  will  be  of  permanent  value.  They  can  look 
up  the  details  whenever  they  need  them. 

Secondly,  I  should  select  a  limited  number  of  topics  for  very 
careful  study  and  discussion  —  such  topics  as  will  be  most 
valuable  in  bringing  out  the  ideas  which  we  want  pupils  to  re- 
tain. The  formation  and  development  of  the  national  govern- 
ment, the  growth  of  ideas,  institutions,  and  laws  in  regard  to 
social  justice,  and  the  development  of  education  in  the  joint 
interest  of  the  state  and  the  individual  are  among  the  topics 
which  I  should  choose. 

This  method  would  omit,  except  for  cursory  reading,  many 
topics  upon  which  pupils  are  usually  examined  but  I  believe  that 


MAKING    A    COURSE    OF    STUDY  95 

it  would  give  a  much  better  educational  result.  If  our  students 
carry  away  with  them  a  real  interest  in  history  as  a  record  of 
human  life,  some  accurate  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and 
sound  ideals  in  regard  to  public  spirit,  obedience  to  law,  co- 
operation, the  value  of  morality,  and  the  influence  of  leadership, 
we  need  not  be  greatly  alarmed  if  they  are  unable  to  name  the 
presidents  in  order  or  have  forgotten  the  terms  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise. 

I  have  already  suggested  that  pupils  should  read  history  in 
more  detail  than  the  ordinary  textbook  affords.  I  think  there 
is  also  need  of  material  of  a  different  sort.  Besides  the  lives  of 
political  and  military  heroes,  we  ought,  if  possible,  to  study  the 
work  of  men  and  women  who  have  made  important  contribu- 
tions in  other  fields,  —  science,  medicine,  engineering,  business, 
public  service,  education,  religion. 

If  you  can  find  time  to  comment  on  these  suggestions,  I  shall 
be  glad  to  have  your  criticisms. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Henry  E.  Taylor 

PROBLEM  72.  —  As  a  preliminary  to  a  revision  of  the  course  of 
study,  teachers  are  asked  to  point  out  deficiencies  in  the  existing 
course  for  their  grades.  The  first-grade  course  is  stated  as 
follows : 

Reading:  Phonetic  system.  Word  building.  Perception 
cards.  Blackboard  work.  Drill  on  "  blend "  and 
"  family  "  words.  Primer  and  two  first  readers.  Al- 
phabet. Oral  reproductions.  Mother  Goose  rimes. 
Fairy  and  nature  stories.  Simple  dramatization.  Poems 
suitable  to  the  grade. 

Spelling  of  words  selected  from  the  readers.  Large  free 
writing.  Short  written  compositions. 

Addition  and  subtraction  facts  of  i,  2,  3,  4  to  100.  Writing 
and  reading  numbers  to  100.  Simple  problems.  Use  of 
pound,  yard,  pint,  quart,  etc. 

Easy  drawing,  color  work,  weaving,  paper  folding,  paper 
cutting,  pasting,  sewing,  basketry. 

Singing  and  games.     Simple  calisthenics.     Nature  study. 


96  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT  MATTER 

A  first-grade  teacher  prepares  to  write  her  criticisms. 
She  reads  over  the  statement  of  the  course,  and  jots  down 
the  following  notes : 

"Reading:  Not  enough  books.  Class  ought  to  read 
at  least  five.  Some  children  can  read  ten."  "Too  much 
formal  number  work." 

"That's  not  much  in  the  way  of  criticism,"  she  thinks. 
"Suppose  those  changes  were  made,  would  the  course  be 
satisfactory  then?  Let's  see  whether  there  are  any  impor- 
tant omissions.  Ah!  There's  nothing  about  health.  I 
am  sure  that  some  of  our  health  lessons  are  quite  as  impor- 
tant as  spelling  or  number  combinations.  And  then  take 
the  work  that  I  have  been  trying  to  do  to  develop  courtesy 
and  self-reliance  and  cooperation.  There's  nothing  to 
suggest  that.  Of  course,  a  teacher  might  develop  those 
qualities  while  teaching  what  the  outline  calls  for,  but 
then  she  might  not.  As  far  as  the  outline  goes,  a  teacher 
has  done  her  full  duty  if  the  children  have  read  two  books, 
whether  or  not  they  have  grown  in  self-reliance.  The 
statement  would  give  the  impression  that  learning  to  read, 
learning  number  facts,  and  the  other  bits  of  knowledge  are 
the  important  things,  and  the  character  elements  are 
incidental,  supposed  apparently  to  develop  as  a  by-product. 
They  won't  unless  the  teacher  keeps  them  in  mind.  Ought 
they  not  to  have  a  place  in  the  course  of  study,  since  it  is 
intended  for  the  teacher's  guidance? 

The  ground  to  be  covered  in  formal  knowledge  seems 
reasonable  enough,  but  that  is  all  there  is  to  the  outline. 
My  children  do  almost  everything  that  is  listed  but  the 
statement  does  not  suggest  living,  growing,  happy  children. 
A  first  grade  might  cover  this  course  of  study  and  be  a  very 


MAKING  A   COURSE   OF   STUDY  97 

dull  affair.  There  ought,  I  think,  to  be  more  suggestion 
of  activity. 

Let's  forget  the  outline  for  a  while  and  think  of  the  chil- 
dren —  think  of  them  as  they  come  in  from  the  kindergarten, 
and  then  think  of  the  changes  that  ought  to  take  place 
in  them  in  a  year.  After  that,  I  can  try  to  suggest  what  we 
should  give  the  children  to  think  about  and  to  do,  in  order 
to  produce  the  changes.  Undoubtedly  that  will  be  a 
much  harder  thing  to  do  than  to  criticize  the  amount  and 
kind  of  formal  subject  matter  laid  out  for  the  grade,  but 
it  will  be  interesting  to  see  what  I  can  do  with  it." 

The  teacher  takes  a  fresh  sheet  of  paper  and  writes: 

"i.  Children  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  grade."  Under 
this  she  writes  various  notes  at  intervals  after  reflection, 
sometimes  crossing  out  what  she  has  written  and  making 
substitutions.  The  result  is  as  follows : 

"No  two  children  are  alike.  Some  are  self-possessed, 
others  timid.  Some  talk  freely,  others  usually  silent. 
Extent  of  vocabularies  differs  much.  Ideas  differ  as  widely 
as  vocabularies.  Some  very  well-mannered,  others  very 
crude.  Most  are  affectionate,  a  few  unresponsive.  Some 
have  learned  to  work  pretty  well  with  others,  some  act 
selfishly  and  need  to  be  constantly  controlled.  Nearly 
all  are  obedient.  Most  of  the  children  are  eager  to  learn 
to  read,  a  few  already  know  a  few  words,  a  few  show  no 
active  interest.  Some  show  much  imagination  and  ability 
in  drawing  and  making  things.  Class  shows  all  degrees 
of  ability  in  this  respect.  Most  of  the  children  know  some 
songs  and  stories,  but  there  is  great  variation.  Practically 
all  enjoy  stories  and  games  and  especially  making  things. 
Variation  in  ideas  of  number.  Variation  in  knowledge  of 

E.    T.    PROB. 7 


98  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

nature  and  interest  in  it.  Some  are  daintily  dressed  and 
habitually  clean.  Some  are  ragged  through  no  fault  of 
their  own.  Some  are  dirty.  A  few  are  very  frail.  Some 
are  apparently  undernourished. 

2.  Children  at  the  end  of  the  first  year.  Still  very 
unlike.  Differences  even  more  marked  in  some  cases  than 
at  beginning.  We  cannot  expect  to  overcome  this.  Chil- 
dren differ  in  capacity.  What  we  want  is  a  full  year's 
growth  for  each  one.  A  few  of  the  children  should  already 
have  been  advanced  to  a  higher  grade.  A  few  more  should 
be  ready  to  'skip.'  Some  will  not  have  made  normal 
progress  for  a  first  grade.  They  should  have  made  good 
progress  for  them,  and  they  ought  to  continue,  not  just 
start  over  again.  There  should  have  been  general  progress 
in  social  and  moral  habits  and  ideas  —  working  with  others, 
self-direction,  kindness,  politeness,  trustworthiness,  clean- 
liness, health,  ability  to  plan,  and  carry  out  plans,  skill 
in  using  hands,  ability  to  choose  the  better  of  two  things, 
from  the  standpoint  of  beauty,  usefulness,  right.  There 
should  be  keen  interest  in  each  other,  ambition  to  do  one's 
best  for  the  group.  Ability  to  read  for  one's  own  enjoy- 
ment and  the  enjoyment  of  others,  and  ambition  to  read 
better ;  ability  to  write  well  enough  to  accomplish  the 
individual's  purposes.  Same  standard  in  use  of  numbers, 
in  talking,  drawing,  and  handwork.  Especially,  ambition 
to  learn  new  things  and  become  more  skillful  in  order  to 
carry  out  one's  own  plans.  Knowledge  of  nature  and  es- 
pecially, interest  in  finding  out  new  and  beautiful  things. 
Individual  progress  in  overcoming  defects ;  diffidence, 
selfishness,  lack  of  initiative,  lack  of  perseverance,  errors 
of  speech,  etc." 


MAKING   A   COURSE   OF   STUDY  99 

The  teacher  reads  over  her  notes  and  says:  "Now  for 
the  hard  part."  She  writes : 

"3.  Course  of  study  planned  to  accomplish  these 
changes."  As  before  she  thinks  and  jots  down  notes, 
crosses  out,  and  makes  substitutions.  This  is  the  result : 

"The  teacher's  aim  should  be  to  have  a  group  of  happy, 
active,  growing  children,  interested  in  each  other  and  each 
other's  growth,  ambitious  to  grow  themselves  in  order  to  do 
their  part  in  making  others  happy. 

There  should  be  as  much  doing  as  possible,  and  much 
cooperative  group  work.  Work  should  be  done  with  a 
purpose  —  a  purpose  that  is  the  children's  own. 

The  things  to  be  done  should  be  such  as  children  are 
naturally  interested  in  and  which  will  give  opportunity 
for  varied  activity.  Experience  shows  that  they  are 
usually  interested  in  the  lives  of  people  with  whom  they 
come  in  contact.  They  love  to  play  house,  and  store,  to  be 
postman,  etc.  The  best  project  that  I  know  of  is  playing 
house.  Let  the  children  build  a  doll's  house,  make  furniture 
for  it,  decorate  it,  dress  the  dolls  who  are  to  occupy  it. 
Let  them  dramatize  or  play  the  home  activities :  getting 
the  meals,  cleaning,  having  meals,  etc.  This  sort  of  play 
will  give  the  motive  for  learning  to  use  their  hands,  for 
planning  and  executing,  for  choosing  the  best.  It  will 
give  opportunity  for  learning  good  manners  and  ideas 
about  health.  It  will  give  the  teacher  opportunity  to  put 
right  ideas  and  ambitions  into  the  children's  minds  without 
preaching.  Perhaps  there  are  other  projects  which  will 
do  as  well,  but  this  seems  to  be  the  best  one  that  has  been 
tried. 

In  building  and  equipping  the  house,  a  good  deal  will  be 


TOO  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

learned  about  numbers,  measuring,  and  judging  distances, 
and  this  project  will  provide  plenty  of  opportunity  for 
training  in  language. 

The  motive  for  learning  to  read  is  to  enjoy  books  and  to 
read  to  others.  The  method  is  suggested  well  enough 
(for  a  brief  statement)  in  the  present  outline.  There 
must  be  provision  for  individual  differences.  The  class 
should  have  a  library  of  suitable  books  which  children  can 
read  when  they  have  time.  Some  will  read  a  great  many. 
There  should  be  opportunity  for  a  child  to  read  a  new  story 
to  the  rest  of  the  class.  Children  can  help  others  in  learn- 
ing to  read  and  help  themselves  at  the  same  time.  The 
books  can  be  chosen  so  as  to  give  the  children  valuable 
ideas. 

Writing  invitations  and  signs,  keeping  accounts,  and 
playing  school  will  furnish  a  motive  for  learning  to  write. 

Spelling  must  be  learned  in  order  to  be  able  to  write. 

Drawing  will  be  used  to  make  things  clear  to  others,  as 
well  as  for  decoration,  and  just  for  fun,  but  the  teacher 
should  encourage  the  children  to  come  to  her  for  help  when 
they  get  into  difficulties.  Then  they  can  learn  a  new  thing 
for  keeps. 

The  teacher  should  make  a  collection  of  stories  which 
will  bring  out  ideas  which  she  wants  the  children  to  grasp  — 
stories  of  people  who  made  themselves  strong,  or  did  others 
a  good  turn,  or  \vho  never  let  the  giant  Laziness  get  the 
better  of  them. 

It  will  be  great  fun  to  get  acquainted  with  all  the  birds 
and  flowers  that  can  be  discovered,  to  show  them  to  the 
class  and  perhaps  to  make  some  collections. 

Our  outline  ought  to  have  a  list  of  the  best  books,  stories, 


MAKING   A   COURSE   OF   STUDY  IOI 

songs,  and  games  for  first  graders.  That  is  something  that 
we  shall  have  to  work  out.  It  will  help  teachers,  too,  if 
we  make  a  collection  of  children's  work  of  various  sorts  — 
not  merely  the  best.  We  can  have  five  or  six  samples  of  a 
given  piece  of  work,  ranging  from  the  best  to  the  poorest, 
and  indicate  what  percentage  of  a  class  may  be  expected 
to  reach  each  degree  of  skill." 

"There,"  says  the  teacher,  after  reading  over  her  state- 
ment. "  That's  the  best  I  can  do  now.  I  have  got 
something  out  of  my  thinking,  whether  my  criticisms  are 
accepted  or  not.  When  we  get  our  ideas  together,  we  ought 
to  be  able  to  improve  on  that  dry-as-dust  course  of  study." 

At  a  conference  of  the  first-grade  teachers,  everyone  is 
called  upon  for  criticisms  upon  the  existing  course.  Our 
teacher  explains  how  she  attacked  the  problem  and  reads 
her  notes.  Most  of  the  teachers  find  themselves  in  sym- 
pathy with  her  point  of  view  and  feel  that  the  new  course  of 
study  statement  should  be  worked  out  on  the  lines  which 
she  has  suggested.  There  are,  however,  two  main  objec- 
tions :  first,  that  the  proposed  plan  is  too  general.  The 
ideals  are  fine  but  most  teachers,  especially  young  teachers, 
will  feel  the  need  of  a  specific  statement  of  the  material  to 
be  used,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  results  aimed  at.  Sec- 
ondly, that  there  should  be  a  more  definite  statement  of  the 
formal  knowledge  which  children  are  expected  to  acquire. 
Without  such  a  statement,  there  will  be  great  variation  in 
accomplishment  among  classes  as  well  as  individuals. 

In  offering  the  first  objection,  one  of  the  teachers  says : 
"You  say  that  the  children  should  become  interested  in 
each  other's  growth.  I  think  so  too,  if  it  can  be  done,  but 
the  outline  ought  to  show  just  what  material  to  use,  and 


' 


102  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

how  to  go  to  work."  Our  teacher  replies:  "I  think  there 
is  a  danger  in  attempting  to  accomplish  such  a  result  by 
prescribing  exact  procedure.  The  most  important  thing 
is  for  the  teacher  to  believe,  with  all  her  might,  that  the 
children  ought  to  acquire  this  attitude  and  that  they  can 
do  so.  If  she  understands  little  children,  she  will  find  the 
means  of  influencing  them  in  the  desired  way  much  more 
effectively  when  she  has  her  own  youngsters  in  mind  than  if 
she  follows  a  prescribed  plan  of  work.  She  can  use  stories 
which  suggest  the  idea,  she  can  commend  children  when 
they  show  the  desired  attitude,  and  she  can  drop  a  remark 
here  and  there  while  the  children  are  at  work.  The  impor- 
tant thing  is  the  aim  not  the  exact  subject  matter.  We 
must  be  careful  not  to  focus  attention  on  the  subject  matter 
and  lose  sight  of  the  aim." 

Someone  suggests  that  the  objection  might  be  overcome 
by  appending  to  the  course  of  study  a  detailed  statement 
of  the  experience  of  a  teacher  who  had  been  successful  in 
developing  the  attitude  in  question.  It  could  be  explained 
that  the  statement  ought  not  to  be  followed  slavishly,  that 
it  is  given  merely  as  an  illustration  to  show  that  the  aim  is 
practicable  and  to  suggest  ways  of  setting  to  work  to 
accomplish  it.  This  suggestion  is  approved. 

In  regard  to  the  second  objection,  it  is  pointed  out  that 
we  must  expect  variations  in  formal  knowledge  possessed 
by  the  children,  unless  we  deliberately  stunt  the  growth  of 
the 'abler  ones,  and  make  parrots  of  those  who  develop 
slowly. 

If  we  know  definitely  what  individual  children  have 
acquired  and  assure  ourselves  that  they  can  use  what  they 
know,  the  variation  need  not  cause  worry.  It  is  agreed, 


THE  VALUE  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER          103 

however,  that  teachers  would  be  greatly  aided  by  a  state- 
ment of  the  formal  knowledge  that  children  ordinarily 
acquire  by  the  end  of  the  first  grade  when  taught  in  the 
manner  proposed.  Approval  is  given  to  the  proposal  that 
some  such  statement  as  the  following  be  given  in  the  course 
of  study : 

"  The  aim  is  not  to  have  the  children  acquire  formal  knowl- 
edge for  its  own  sake,  but  to  have  them  learn  to  understand 
and  to  do  things  which  they  can  do  with  a  purpose.  In  the 
activities  suggested  in  the  foregoing  outline,  first-grade  children 
ordinarily  acquire  the  following  formal  knowledge : 

Reading : 

per  cent  make  little  progress,  too  immature  or  mentally 

defective.     Probably   should    not   attempt   reading   at 
this  stage. 

per  cent  manage  to  read  primer  and  one  first  reader. 

Slow  in  memorizing  words  and  in  applying  phonic  prin- 
ciples.    Need  much  drill  and  review. 

—  per  cent  read  primer  and  two  or  three  first  readers  and 
parts  of  others. 

per  cent  read  primer,  five  or  ten  first   readers.     Read 

with  enjoyment  whenever  opportunity  offers. 

per  cent  read  anything  that  interests    them  including 

books  considerably  beyond  their  grade. 

Note :  Percentages  to  be  adopted  tentatively,  by  compiling 
the  records  of  all  teachers,  and  revised  from  time  to 
time.  Similar  statements  to  be  given  for  spelling,  writ- 
ing, and  number  work." 

PROBLEM  73.  —  High  school  teachers  are  required  to  submit 
their  examination  papers  to  the  principal  for  approval.  An 
English  teacher  hands  in  the  following  paper  for  a  first-year 
class : 


104  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

1.  Write  a  page  on  the  siege  of  Torquilstone  Castle. 

2.  Write  a  description  of  a  Saxon  home  at  the  period  in 
which  the  scene  of  "  Ivanhoe  "  is  laid. 

3.  How  was  one  of  the  following  traits  shown  in  some  charac- 
ter in  "  Ivanhoe  "  :  Loyalty,  bravery,  devotion,  service, 
revenge  ? 

4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms :   Holy  Grail, 
Knight    Templar,   zecchin,    drawbridge,    gramercy,   life- 
in-death,  albatross,  quarter-staff,  sorcerer. 

5.  How  are  sentences  classified  as  to  form?     Give  an  ex- 
ample of  each. 

6.  Classify  as  parts  of  speech  all  the  words  in  the  following 
passage : 

Ernest  saw  him.  There  he  was  beneath  the  arch  of 
green  boughs ;  and  there,  too,  through  the  vista  of  the 
forest,  appeared  the  Great  Stone  Face.  And  was  there, 
indeed,  the  resemblance  to  which  the  crowd  had  testified  ? 
Alas !  Ernest  could  not  recognize  it  I  He  beheld  a  war- 
worn and  weather-beaten  countenance,  full  of  energy,  and 
expressive  of  an  iron  will ;  but  the  gentle  wisdom,  the 
deep,  broad,  tender  sympathies,  were  altogether  wanting 
in  old  Blood-and-Thunder's  visage. 

The  principal  criticizes  the  paper  on  the  ground  that  it 
is  too  exclusively  a  test  of  memory,  and  requests  that  it  be 
revised  so  as  to  test  power  in  the  use  of  English  and  in 
understanding  of  important  ideas  suggested  by  the  reading 
done  during  the  term. 

The  teacher  is  hurt  and  inclined  to  be  angry.  He  was 
rather  proud  of  this  paper,  having  made  an  earnest  effort 
to.  frame  questions  which  would  test  the  pupils'  knowledge 
of  "  Ivanhce,"  to  the  study  of  which  four  or  five  weeks  have 
been  devoted.  In  composition,  narration  and  description 
have  been  emphasized  and  the  first  two  questions  were 
intended  to  test  pupils'  ability  to  apply  the  principles 
studied.  The  grammatical  questions  were  based  on 


TESTING    THE   VALUE   OF   MATERIAL  105 

work  which  had  occupied  a  lot  of  time.  It  was  grammar 
school  work,  to  be  sure,  but  the  pupils  didn't  seem  to  know 
the  difference  between  a  complex  and  a  compound  sentence 
and  were  absurdly  inaccurate  in  distinguishing  between 
the  parts  of  speech.  He  proposed  to  condition  in  grammar 
any  pupil  who  failed  on  those  two  questions. 

The  matter  remains  upon  the  teacher's  mind  during 
much  of  the  day.  He  imagines  the  interview  with  the 
principal  when  he  goes  to  discuss  the  matter.  Various 
clever  and  cutting  remarks  pass  through  his  mind.  Perhaps 
the  principal  would  like  to  make  out  the  paper  himself. 
In  the  evening,  he  sits  down,  with  the  idea  of  preparing 
overwhelming  arguments  in  defense  of  his  original  questions. 

The  first  criticism  is  that  the  questions  depend  too  much 
upon  memory.  It  is  true  that  a  good  many  facts  are 
needed  to  answer  the  questions,  but  any  pupil  who  has  paid 
attention  during  the  term  ought  to  remember  most  of 
them.  Suppose  he  were  to  modify  the  questions  so  as  to 
require  a  less  exact  memory  of  details,  would  the  result  be 
a  better  test  of  power  in  the  use  of  English?  It  occurs 
to  him  that  a  pupil  who  has  forgotten  some  of  the  details 
might  not  be  able  to  write  much  on  some  of  the  questions, 
and  might  spend  his  time  trying  to  recall  details  and  so 
fail  to  do  himself  justice  in  his  use  of  English.  "What  sort 
of  test,"  he  thinks  to  himself,  "would  be  likely  to  call 
forth  the  best  writing  that  a  person  can  do?"  His  first 
thought  is:  "Let  him  write  on  the  subject  that  interests 
him  most."  He  writes  : 

"  i.  Write  a  page  on  the  subject  in  which  you  are  most 
interested." 

He  has  hardly  finished  this  statement  when  he  draws  a 


106  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT  MATTER 

line  through  it,  saying:  "No,  that  won't  do.  Most  boys — 
and  some  girls,  I  imagine  —  would  not  be  wildly  eager  to 
write  a  page  about  anything  unless  they  had  a  strong  motive 
for  it.  They  would  chew  their  pencils,  and  write  a  sentence 
at  a  time  with  the  aim  of  getting  the  page  filled." 

Another  objection  occurs  to  him.  "Writing  on  the 
subject  which  interests  one  most  is  not  an  adequate  test. 
Few  people  enjoy  writing  just  for  the  sake  of  writing  even 
•on  an  interesting  subject.  Most  people  would  want  to 
talk  about  it,  but  they  wouldn't  care  to  write.  A  few  of 
my  pupils  would  shine  in  such  work ;  but  they  are  the  pupils 
whom  I  do  not  need  to  test.  Isn't  it  true  that  we  all 
have  to  do  some  writing  where  the  motive  is  not  to  ex- 
press our  thoughts  on  an  interesting  subject,  but  to  make 
an  impression  on  other  people  who  are  expected  to  read 
what  we  write?  It  is  the  impression  that  we  are  interested 
in.  Why  can  I  not  set  up  a  situation  in  which  a  high  school 
freshman  shall  have  a  motive  for  writing  as  well  as  he  can  ?  " 

He  makes  a  list : 

a.  A  letter  to  a  person  on  whom  the  writer  is  anxious  to  make 
a  definite  impression. 

b.  A  contribution  for  the  school  paper  or  local  paper  or  a 
literary  society. 

c.  Preparation  for  a  social  gathering  or  a  club  meeting  in 
which  the  pupil  will  be  expected  to  contribute  something 
interesting. 

d.  A  report  on  some  subject  assigned  by  a  teacher,  or  a  re- 
port as  an  officer  or  committeeman  to  a  club  meeting. 

"Now,"  says  the  teacher,  "how  can  I  set  the  stage  so 
that  the  pupil  will  be  face  to  face  with  a  real  problem  in 
composition?"  After  much  reflection  and  frequent 
changes,  he  evolves  the  following : 


TESTING    THE    VALUE    OF    MATERIAL  107 

"  The  first  part  of  the  examination  is  to  test  your  ability  to 
write  effectively.  Choose  one  of  the  first  two  problems  and  one 
of  the  other  three.  Try  to  forget  that  you  are  writing  an  exami- 
nation and  imagine  yourself  in  the  situation  described  in  the 
problem.  Think  of  the  person  or  persons  whom  you  are  ad- 
dressing and  try  to  plan  your  writing  so  as  to  produce  the  effect 
upon  them  that  you  want  to  make. 

PROBLEM  A. 

Chicago,  January  5,  1921 

Dear 

I  am  sorry  that  you  weren't  up  in  time  to  walk  to  the 
station  with  me  when  I  started  on  this  business  trip.  I  wanted 
to  ask  you  to  do  something  while  I  was  away.  Mother  will  be 
expecting  to  hear  from  you  and  I  don't  need  to  remind  you  to 
write  for  I  am  sure  that  you  will  do  that,  but  I  want  you  to  do  a 
good  job.  It  must  be  pretty  tedious  for  her  in  the  hospital, 
and  letters  will  make  it  easier  for  her.  She  will  be  glad,  of 
course,  to  get  any  sort  of  letter,  even  if  it  is  the  usual  thing: 
'  Dear  Mother :  I  hope  you  are  feeling  better.  There  isn't 
anything  new,  and  I  haven't  much  time  to-night.  I'll  write 
again  soon.'  But  that  sort  of  letter  isn't  what  I  expect  of  you. 
Mother  isn't  stupid  and  she  can't  help  feeling,  'He  doesn't 
care  much.'  You  really  do  care  and  if  you  go  at  your  letter  as 
you  do  a  tennis  match  or  anything  else  that  you  are  determined 
to  do  well,  you  will  make  her  know  how  much  you  miss  her  and 
will  make  her  happy  for  days.  See  if  you  can't  make  her  smile. 
Give  her  something  to  think  about. 

From  your  affectionate 

Dad 

PROBLEM  B. 


Prepare  to  be  shocked,  outraged,  and  then  overwhelmed ! 
Your  staid  little  town  is  in  danger  of  excitement  beyond  any- 
thing that  it  has  experienced  since  Washington  spent  a  sleepless 
night  in  its  best  hotel.  A  famous  family  is  about  to  descend 
upon  you  —  perhaps. 

Father  has  been  transferred  to  the  New  York  office  and  the 
family  council  is  debating  the  question,  '  Where  shall  we  live?  ' 


108  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

Sister  is  the  leading  advocate  for  a  flat  in  the  great  city,  but 
Mother  is  just  as  strong  for  the  negative  and  she  usually  gets 
the  decision.  So  the  question  is  East  Orange,  or  Mount  Vernon, 
or  Hackensack?  Which?  Here's  your  chance  to  boom  your 
own  village.  The  main  question  is  schools  or,  more  exactly, 
high  schools.  Father  has  friends  who  live  in  the  first  two  places 
and  they  are  loud  in  their  praises  of  their  high  schools,  but 
wouldn't  it  be  splendid  if  we  could  be  in  school  together  !  When 
Father  told  his  friends  that  he  had  heard  the  Hackensack  schools 
well  spoken  of,  they  said :  '  No  doubt  they  are  very  good  for  a 
small  place,  but  of  course  they  could  hardly  be  equal  to  those  of 
larger  and  wealthier  cities  like  Mount  Vernon  and  East  Orange.' 
Do  send  me  some  ammunition ! 

Yours  ever, 

Jane 

PROBLEM  C. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  editors  of  a  school  paper,  the  proposal 
is  made  that  a  representative  of  the  freshman  class  be  ap- 
pointed. This  is  vigorously  opposed  by  some  of  the  older 
students  on  the  ground  that  freshmen  are  too  young  to  write 
anything  worth  reading.  It  is  finally  decided  to  have  a  trial 
and  if  anything  really  good  is  submitted,  to  choose  the  author 
of  the  best  piece  of  work. 

PROBLEM  D. 

A  boy  is  usually  very  silent  at  meal  times.  One  day,  after  a 
friend  has  been  his  guest  at  dinner,  his  mother  has  a  talk  with 
him.  She  asks:  'Why  didn't  you  help  to  entertain  Henry? 
You  just  sat  still  and  ate.  He  kept  trying  to  start  conversation 
but  you  never  said  more  than  a  word  or  two  in  reply  and  you 
never  volunteered  a  remark.'  '  I  couldn't  think  of  anything 
interesting  to  say,'  he  replies.  '  I  think  that  is  a  kind  of  mental 
laziness,'  she  continues.  '  You  should  have  felt  some  respon- 
sibility for  making  the  meal  enjoyable.  Even  when  we  have  no 
guests,  everyone  ought  to  have  something  to  contribute  at  meal 
times.  Otherwise  our  meals  would  be  like  feeding  time  for 
animals.'  'Well  I  have  tried  to  talk,'  he  retorts,  '  but  I  can't. 
I  can't  seem  to  think  of  anything  worth  while,  and  if  I  do,  I 


TESTING   THE   VALUE   OF   MATERIAL  109 

can't  put  it  in  an  interesting  way.'  '  I  am  going  to  make  a 
suggestion,'  she  replies.  '  It  will  take  some  effort,  but  it  will 
be  worth  doing.  Do  some  thinking  before  mealtime.  Think 
over  your  experiences,  the  people  you  have  met,  funny  things 
you  have  heard,  and  write  them  out  so  as  to  make  them  interest- 
ing. After  you  have  done  this  a  few  times,  it  will  become 
easier,  I  think.  Try  it  for  to-morrow.' 

PROBLEM  E. 

You  have  probably  had  to  prepare  some  piece  of  written  work 
to  present  to  the  class  in  one  of  your  subjects,  say  history  or 
science.  Assume  that  you  now  have  to  write  your  report  on 
this  subject.  Remember  that  you  are  expected  to  know  more 
about  the  matter  than  your  classmates.  Present  it  in  such  a 
way  as  to  interest  them  and  enable  them  to  carry  away  the  im- 
portant ideas." 

"I  will  show  that  to  Mr.  G.,"  thinks  the  teacher,  "as  a 
substitute  for  my  first  two  original  questions.  I  think, 
myself,  that  it  is  a  better  test  of  power  in  the  practical  use 
of  English.  Now  let's  look  at  his  other  criticism.  He 
wants  me  to  test  the  pupils'  understanding  of  important 
ideas  suggested  by  the  reading.  Now  what  are  the  im- 
portant ideas  that  pupils  ought  to  get  from  '  Ivanhoe,'  the 
'Ancient  Mariner/  and  the  'Vision  of  Sir  Launfal'?" 
He  writes : 

" Ivanhoe:  Ideals  of  courage,  unselfish  love,  endurance, 
strength,  loyalty  to  friends,  protection  of  the  weak.  Un-~ 
worthiness  of  ideals  of  selfish  power,  oppression  of  the  weak, 
use  of  others  for  one's  own  satisfaction,  cruelty,  revenge." 
He  thinks:  "It  is  the  human  qualities,  made  real  in  the 
stirring  scenes  of  the  story  which  ought  to  make  the  im- 
pression. It  doesn't  matter  much  whether  the  details  of 
the  story  are  accurately  retained  if  these  ideals  sink  home. 
I  had  some  such  idea  in  framing  my  third  question.  Can  I 


110  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

improve  on  it?  My  question  might  test  only  memory." 
After  reflection,  he  writes  again. 

"i.  What  character  in  'Ivanhoe'  do  you  admire  most? 
Describe  your  vision  of  him  and  explain  what  caused  you 
to  attribute  to  him  the  qualities  which  you  see  in  him. 
What  character  do  you  dislike  most?  Explain  in  a  similar 
way.  If  those  two  people  were  living  at  the  present  time 
explain  the  behavior  which  you  would  expect  of  them." 

Going  on  to  the  next  question,  the  teacher  says  to  him- 
self :  "That  is  a  straight  memory  question.  I  can  easily 
improve  on  that."  He  writes: 

"2.  What  did  you  enjoy  most  in  the  'Ancient  Mariner' 
and  the  '  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal '  ?  What  did  you  get  from 
them  that  is  worth  remembering?  Was  the  time  which 
you  spent  on  them  well  spent?  Why?" 

At  this  point,  the  teacher's  time  is  exhausted.  He 
takes  his  notes  to  the  principal  and  receives  cordial  approval 
of  his  revised  questions.  "What  about  the  last  two  ques- 
tions?" the  principal  asks.  "Well,"  says  the  teacher, 
"  I  have  spent  a  lot  of  time  on  those  points  and  I  want  to  see 
what  the  pupils  know  about  them."  "What  is  your  aim  in 
teaching  them?  "  is  the  next  question.  "Why,"  the  teacher 
replies,  "to  enable  pupils  to  write  correctly."  "If  a  pupil 
answers  the  questions  perfectly,  will  his  English  be  correct?" 
"Not  necessarily,"  is  the  reply.  "Suppose  a  pupil  is 
ignorant  of  the  scheme  of  classification  of  sentences  and 
unable  to  identify  every  word  under  the  proper  heading, 
will  his  English  necessarily  be  incorrect?  "  "Perhaps  not." 
"Then,  why  insist  on  this  formal  knowledge?  It  seems  to 
me  that  in  your  previous  questions,  you  have  sufficient 
basis  for  judging  the  quality  of  his  English.  If  such  classi- 


TESTING    THE    VALUE    OF    MATERIAL  III 

fications  as  you  have  been  teaching  are  really  necessary 
or  helpful  for  correct  use  of  English,  it  ought  to  be  possible 
to  test  pupils  in  their  power  to  apply  this  knowledge." 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  SUBJECT  MATTER 

1.  The  amount  of  subject  matter  available  for  education  is 
limitless.     No  one  person  can  give  attention  in  a  long  life 
to  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  the  knowledge  which  the 
race  has  acquired.    Obviously  we  must  try  to  find  sound 
bases  for  selection. 

2.  Subject  matter  should  be  selected  in  accordance  with  the 
purpose  of  education,  that  is,  holding  the  purpose  in  mind, 
we  must  try  to  select  that  which  is  most  likely  to  contrib- 
ute to  its  accomplishment. 

3.  The  needs  of  society  should  be  an  important  criterion  of 
selection. 

4.  Absorption  of  subject  matter  should  not  be  regarded  as  an 
end  in  itself.     It  should  be  used  as  a  means  of  aiding  the 
development  of  the  pupil. 

5.  Subject  matter  which  is  of  current  value  should  take  prece- 
dence over  conventional  knowledge. 

6.  Acquirement  of  important  ideas,  ideals,  and  attitudes  should 
be  sought  rather  than  the  memory  of  details.   Pupils  should  be 
trained  to  find  information  for  themselves  as  needed.     Sub- 
ject matter  may  often  be  used  as  a  sort  of  scaffold  for  de- 
veloping ideals,  interests,  and  habits  of  work.    This  scaffold- 
ing is  not  of  permanent  value.     Do  not  try  to  fix  it  in 
memory  but  make  sure  that  the  main  structure  is  firmly 
established. 

7.  The  actual  effect  of  subject  matter  studied  upon  a  pupil's 
interests,  attitudes,  and  conduct  is  a  better  test  of  its  value 
than   adult  conceptions  of  what  it  ought  to  accomplish. 
We  must  rely  less  upon  memory  of  facts  as  a  test  of  educa- 
tional accomplishment  and  learn  to  measure  the  more  fun- 
damental effects  of  our  teaching. 

8.  Knowledge  which  is  gained  through  experience  in  which  it 
is  employed  for  a  purpose  is  more  serviceable  than  that 
which  is  studied  without  relation  to  a  felt  need.     The  most 


112  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

effective  education  involves  much  doing  by  children  under 
the  stimulus  of  their  own  purpose. 

9.  A  very  few  central  themes  or  projects  for  a  grade  are  better 
than  a  multitude  of  bits  of  information  and  isolated  pro- 
cesses. The  first  named  type  of  subject  matter  encourages 
continued  thinking,  organization  of  ideas,  and  application 
of  processes. 

10.  The  best  material  for  developing  habits,  ideals,  interests, 
and  abilities  is  that  which  is  most  closely  related  to  the 
interests  of  the  pupils. 


PROBLEM  74.  —  Teachers  of  the  first  grade  are  asked  to  make 
recommendations  as  to  what  work,  if  any,  in  arithmetic  should 
be  included  in  the  course  for  the  grade. 

PROBLEM  75.  —  A  teacher  of  an  elementary  grade  has  worked 
in  a  system  whose  course  of  study  included  handwork  consisting 
of  miscellaneous  exercises  giving  practice  in  cutting,  pasting, 
sewing,  etc.  She  goes  to  work  in  another  system  in  which 
"  Industrial  Arts  "  furnishes  much  of  the  subject  matter  of  the 
elementary  grades.  Information  about  industrial  materials 
and  processes  which  calls  for  a  good  deal  of  the  class  time  is 
new  to  her.  A  greater  variety  of  handwork  is  called  for  than 
she  has  been  used  to,  but  there  is  not  time  to  develop  much 
skill.  She  is  puzzled  about  the  purpose  of  the  plan  and  is  in- 
clined to  doubt  its  value,  so  she  appeals  to  another  teacher  for 
an  explanation. 

PROBLEM  76.  —  A  high  school  teacher  who  has  been  used  to 
following  a  definite  outline  based  upon  college  entrance  re- 
quirements enters  a  system  in  which  he  is  expected  to  plan  his 
own  courses.  He  learns  that  the  principal  and  superintendent 
will  expect  him  to  have  good  reasons  for  any  topics  which  he 
includes  in  the  course. 

PROBLEM  77.  —  A  teacher  of  arithmetic  is  asked  to  review  a 
new  textbook  and  make  a  recommendation  in  regard  to  its 
substitution  for  the  book  in  use.  She  is  expected  to  demonstrate 
the  soundness  of  her  advice. 


SELECTION   OF   EDUCATIONAL   MATERIAL  113 

PROBLEM  78.  —  A  sixth-grade  teacher  has  always  depended 
upon  the  supervisor  for  subjects  of  lessons  in  drawing.  The 
illness  of  the  supervisor  throws  the  teacher  upon  her  own  re- 
sources for  several  weeks.  The  supervisor  will  want  to  know 
what  she  has  done  and  why  she  has  done  it. 

PROBLEM  79.  —  A  teacher  of  French  realizes  that  very  few  of 
her  students  ever  make  any  use  of  the  language.  Apparently 
they  take  the  subject  either  because  it  is  required  for  college  en- 
trance or  because  they  prefer  it  to  the  available  alternate  sub- 
jects or  because  their  friends  take  it  or  because  it  is  fashionable. 
She  wonders  whether  the  language  studied  with  those  motives 
and  never  used  after  the  course  has  been  completed  is  serving 
any  important  educational  purpose. 

PROBLEM  80.  —  A  Latin  teacher  reads  criticisms  of  the  educa- 
tional value  of  Latin.  He  is  perfectly  confident  that  Latin  is 
the  most  valuable  subject  of  the  curriculum,  and  the  articles 
only  make  him  angry.  In  defending  his  position  he  makes 
vehement  assertions  which  do  not  seem  convincing  to  anyone 
except  himself  and  those  who  hold  opinions  like  his  own. 

PROBLEM  81.  —  A  teacher  of  mathematics  hears  a  lecturer  say 
that  the  study  of  algebra  is  a  waste  of  time  except  for  those  who 
enter  fields  of  work  in  which  it  is  needed  as  a  tool.  His  incli- 
nation is  to  deny  this  but  he  realizes  that  the  sensible  thing  to  do 
is  to  accept  the  statement  as  a  challenge,  and  try  to  find  out  the 
truth  of  the  matter.  He  has  always  enjoyed  teaching  algebra, 
but  he  has  no  desire  to  spend  his  life  in  work  which  is  of  doubtful 
value. 


PROBLEM  82.  —  A  high  school  teacher  is  interested  in  educa- 
tional aims.  He  likes  the  phrase,  "  preparation  for  citizenship," 
and  reflects  upon  the  relation  of  the  curriculum  to  this  purpose. 
Much  of  the  work  seems  to  have  very  little  direct  bearing  upon 
this  aim.  He  feels  that  the  students  ought  to  spend  more  time 
upon  the  problems  of  the  present,  and  tries  to  make  a  list  of 
such  problems,  which  would  be  appropriate  for  high  school 
students. 

E.    T.    PUOB.  —  8 


114  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

PROBLEM  83.  —  A  parent  remarks  to  a  member  of  the  board  of 
education  that  the  schools  are  wasting  their  time  on  fads  and 
frills  and  the  ignorance  of  the  children  is  appalling.  He  ques- 
tioned his  boy  the  other  night,  and  found  that  he  hadn't  the 
slightest  idea  of  the  location  of  Kamchatka,  or  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
or  Timbuctoo.  He  didn't  even  know  the  capital  of  Vermont. 
The  board  member  calls  upon  the  boy's  teacher  and  wants  to 
know  why  she  is  neglecting  geography. 

PROBLEM  84.  —  A  political  organization  petitions  the  board  of 
education  to  require  all  pupils  in  the  graduating  class  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  to  know  the  names  of  all  national,  state,  county, 
and  local  officers  representing  the  district.  The  teacher  wonders 
whether  such  knowledge  is  valuable  enough  for  eighth-grade 
pupils  to  warrant  withdrawal  of  the  time  required  from  other 
subjects.  She  realizes  that  the  board  is  very  likely  to  grant 
the  petition  unless  convincing  reasons  for  refusing  it  are  offered. 

PROBLEM  85.  —  A  teacher  is  present  when  a  group  of  people 
begin  to  tell  reminiscences  of  their  school  days.  They  dwell 
on  the  subjects  which  they  studied  and  which  they  no  longer 
remember.  One  took  calculus  in  college,  but  couldn't  now  do  a 
problem  to  save  his  life.  Another  studied  Greek  for  several 
years,  but  declares  that  he  can  now  remember  only  a  few  letters 
of  the  alphabet.  Another  can  remember  that  he  once  studied 
ancient  history.  He  knows  that  he  hated  it  and  that  is  about  all 
that  remains  in  his  mind.  A  fourth  recollects  that  he  once 
learned  how  to  do  examples  in  "  present  worth  "  and  "  partial 
payments,"  but  he  hasn't  the  least  idea  what  the  terms  mean. 
The  teacher  wonders  whether  there  is  any  use  in  teaching  facts 
which  will  be  soon  forgotten. 

PROBLEM  86.  —  The  father  of  a  high  school  girl  complains  that 
her  education  has  not  fitted  her  to  meet  her  own  problems. 
She  has  always  received  high  marks,  but  is  inclined  to  de- 
pend upon  him  for  decisions  which  he  thinks  she  ought  to 
make  for  herself.  She  wanted  to  go  to  a  camp  the  previous 
summer,  so  he  told  her  to  find  out  what  she  would  need  in  money 
and  equipment,  and  asked  the  mother  to  let  the  daughter  work 
out  her  own  problem.  The  result  was  that  she  sent  for  money 
the  day  after  she  arrived  at  camp,  and  wrote  every  few  days 
for  something  that  she  needed. 


SELECTION   OF   EDUCATIONAL   MATERIAL 

PROBLEM  87.  —  At  a  teachers'  meeting,  there  is  a  discussion  on 
the  subject  of  spelling.  It  is  agreed  that  many  children  make 
mistakes  on  very  common  words.  One  of  the  teachers  feels 
that  time  is  being  wasted  on  words  which  many  of  the  pupils 
will  never  have  occasion  to  write,  but  another  objects  that  it 
will  not  do  to  omit  any  of  the  words  in  the  spelling  book  as  some 
of  the  pupils  may  have  occasion  to  use  them  later. 

REFERENCES 

Earhart,  L.  B.,  Types  of  Teaching,  Chapters  I,  X,  XI,  XV. 

Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  Chapter  XI. 

Miller,  I.  E.,  Education  for  the  Needs  of  Life,  Chapter  IV. 

Dewey,  J.,  Democracy  and  Education,  Chapters  VI,  XIV. 

King,  L,  Education  for  Social  Efficiency,  Chapter  XI. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  A   Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  Chapter 

XVIII. 
Engleman,  J.  0.,  Moral  Education  in  School  and  Home,  Chapters 

YI-XXI. 

McMurry,  F.  M. ,  How  to  Study,  Chapters  III-VT. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapter  XII. 


CHAPTER  VI 
PROBLEMS  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER 

APPROPRIATENESS  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  VA- 
RIOUS GRADES  ;  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER 

PROBLEM  88. 

COLUMBIA  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
OFFICE  OF  THE   SUPERINTENDENT 

NOTICE  TO  ALL  TEACHERS 

A  recently  enacted  law  requires  that  all  pupils  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  state  shall  study  the  subject  of  Fire  Prevention 
at  least  one  hour  per  month.  We  are  free  to  decide  how  the  sub- 
ject shall  be  presented  in  the  various  grades  and  I  wish  your 
help  in  working  out  plans  so  as  to  obtain  the  maximum  benefit 
from  the  requirement.  A  general  teachers'  meeting  will  be 
devoted  to  the  discussion  of  this  subject.  In  the  meantime, 
please  give  it  your  best  thought.  You  will  naturally  give  chief 
attention  to  the  work  in  your  own  grade,  but  you  should  bear 
in  mind  that  pupils  will  study  the  subject  each  year  and  it  will 
therefore  be  necessary  to  consider  the  relation  of  your  own  work 
to  that  to  be  done  in  other  grades. 

A.  B.  CAMPBELL 

Superintendent 

AT  the  meeting,  the  first  speaker  says:  "It  seems  to  me 
that  the  law  is  absurd.  The  intent  is  all  right  but  the 
legislators  evidently  don't  understand  the  needs  of  the 
schools.  The  curriculum  is  already  overcrowded,  and  how 
are  we  to  find  time  to  give  an  hour  to  this  subject  every 

116 


MATERIAL  FOR  CHILDREN   OF   VARIOUS   GRADES       117 

month  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  end  of  the  high  school  ?" 
Another  says :  "It  calls  for  too  much  time.  With  an  hour 
a  month,  the  subject  will  be  exhausted  in  a  year.  If  we 
make  out  a  syllabus  including  everything  worth  while 
that  can  be  taught  about  fire  prevention  and  then  divide 
it  among  the  grades,  there  will  not  be  enough  for  any  one 
grade  to  occupy  an  hour  a  month ;  and  unless  the  material 
is  divided  up  in  that  way,  the  same  things  will  be  repeated, 
year  after  year.  The  fire-prevention  lessons  will  become 
tedious  and  perfunctory  and  all  the  time  will  be  wasted." 

"  There  is  another  serious  objection,"  says  a  third.  "  The 
subject  is  not  suitable  for  all  grades.  The  young  children 
will  not  understand  it  and  the  high  school  students  will 
make  a  joke  of  it.  The  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  will  be  interested  in  the  subject  and  can 
easily  cover  the  whole  ground.  I  think  we  ought  to  try 
to  have  the  law  changed  so  as  to  limit  the  instruction  to 
the  seventh  or  eighth  grade.  That  will  avoid  waste  of 
time  and  bring  better  results." 

Then  opposing  arguments  are  offered.  A  kindergarten 
teacher  says:  "There  will  be  no  difficulty  in  interesting 
five-year-olds  in  fire  prevention  if  it  is  taken  up  in  the 
proper  way.  Of  course,  if  you  make  out  a  syllabus  and 
then  cut  it  up  into  sections  giving  a  bit  to  each  grade, 
probably  none  of  the  slices  will  fit.  I  think  that  is  the 
wrong  way  to  go  at  it.  We  ought  to  select  those  phases 
of  the  subject  which  are  within  the  experience  of  fhe  chil- 
dren to  be  taught  or  which  can  be  made  real  and  interesting 
to  them,  and  present  them  in  a  manner  consistent  with 
their  intelligence." 

Another  says:    "Repetition  need  not  make   the  work 


Il8  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

tedious.  If  used  skillfully  it  will  add  to  the  interest.  I 
have  no  faith  in  the  plan  of  limiting  the  subject  to  one  grade. 
If  the  idea  is  to  make  a  permanent  impression,  it  must  come 
up  again  and  again,  but  at  each  new  appearance  it  must 
involve  new  applications  and  so  become  a  bigger  idea." 

The  superintendent  then  enters  the  discussion.  "I  am 
not  defending  the  law.  In  general,  I  believe  it  is  a  mistake 
to  fix  courses  of  study  and  time  allotments  by  legislation. 
Such  action  prevents  the  flexibility  which  is  needed  for 
adapting  educational  means  to  the  varying  conditions 
throughout  the  state  and  it  often  leads  to  a  perfunctory 
compliance  with  the  law  in  place  of  a  purposeful  study  of 
the  needs  of  the  schools.  Nevertheless,  I  believe  that  this 
law  may  result  in  a  real  improvement  in  our  school  work. 
We  realize  that  much  of  the  material  in  our  course  of  study 
holds  its  place  through  the  force  of  custom.  We  would 
like  to  have  our  schools  deal  more  directly  with  important 
civic  problems. 

If  we  can  succeed  in  making  a  permanent  impression 
upon  our  pupils  in  regard  to  the  injury  to  humanity 
which  is  caused  by  preventable  fires  and  if  we  can  establish 
ideals  of  individual  responsibility  for  controlling  this  danger 
in  the  public  interest,  we  shall  agree,  shall  we  not,  that 
the  time  spent  can  easily  be  taken  from  subjects  which 
contribute  less  to  the  common  good.  The  law  gives  us 
a  chance  to  work  this  out  and  protects  us  from  the  cry 
of  'fads  and  frills,'  which  is  sure  to  be  raised  against  any 
change  from  the  curriculum  of  the  'good  old  days.' 

Probably  the  law  will  need  modification,  but  I  doubt 
whether  we  are  prepared  to  say  just  how  it  should  be 
changed.  Let  us  try  the  plan  out  and  see  how  much  we 


MATERIAL   FOR   CHILDREN   OF   VARIOUS    GRADES       TIQ 

can  accomplish.  After  a  year  or  two  of  experience,  if  we 
find  that  the  law  hampers  us,  we  shall  be  in  a  position  to 
suggest  desirable  changes  and  to  offer  evidence  in  sup- 
port of  our  suggestions." 

As  there  is  not  time  for  much  discussion  of  details,  teach- 
ers are  asked  to  hand  their  suggestions  to  a  committee 
which  is  to  work  out  a  tentative  syllabus.  The  super- 
intendent asks  what  principles  should  guide  the  committee 
in  selecting  material  for  the  various  grades. 

After  considerable  discussion  the  following  principles 
are  agreed  upon  : 

1.  The  chief  purpose  is  to  develop  an  attitude,  not  to 
teach  facts.     The  pupil  should  come  to  realize  that  fire  is 
necessary  to  civilized  people,  but  is  a  serious  danger,  unless 
carefully  controlled.     He  should  acquire  a  sense  of  respon- 
sibility for  conducting  himself  and  cooperating  with  others 
so  as  to  prevent  fires  as  far  as  possible.     Information  is  to 
be  used  to  develop  this  attitude  and  to  enable  the  pupil  to 
act  intelligently. 

2.  As  far  as  possible  the  pupil  should  learn  about  fire 
prevention  under  the  stimulus  of  his  own  purpose.     There- 
fore the  work  should  be  put  in  the  form  of  problems  or 
projects. 

3.  That  material  is  best  for  a  given  grade  which  arouses 
the  greatest  interest.     This  can  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment. 

4.  The  child's  own  relation  to  fires  should  be  an  important 
criterion  for  selection  of  material.     Actual  experiences  of 
children  of  the  grade  will  be  better  starting  points  than 
imaginary    situations.      Situations  in    which  a  child  of  a 
given  age  might  cause  or  prevent  a  lire  are  to  be  chosen 


120  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

rather  than  those  in  which  he  can  have  no  active  partici- 
pation until  he  is  older. 

5.  Some  aspects  of  fire  prevention  cannot  involve  action 
by  children  of  school  age,  for  example,  the  attitude  of  the 
voter  or  tax-payer  toward  expenditure  for  fire  prevention. 
Such  situations  should  be  taken  up  by  pupils  as  a  part  of 
their  preparation  for  citizenship,  whenever  they  are  old 
enough  to  understand  and  appreciate  them. 

6.  Methods  of  presentation  and  study  must  be  adapted 
to  the  interests  and  capacities  of  the  pupils. 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  committee,  the  teachers' 
suggestions  are  read.  There  is  much  variation  even  among 
the  papers  written  by  teachers  of  the  same  grade,  and  plans 
proposed  for  a  certain  grade  are  in  some  instances  very  much 
like  those  given  by  other  teachers  of  much  higher  grades. 
Someone  suggests  that  everything  proposed  by  the  teachers 
of  a  given  grade  be  put  together  so  as  to  obtain  a  consensus 
of  the  opinions  of  those  who  know  the  children  best,  in 
regard  to  what  material  is  appropriate.  Objection  is  made 
that  this  method  will  lay  too  much  stress  upon  subject 
matter  and  it  is  finally  decided  to  suggest  problems  and 
projects  which  are  thought  to  be  suitable  for  different  grades 
and  to  indicate  subject  matter  which  is  likely  to  be  used  in 
working  out  the  problems,  using  the  teachers'  suggestions 
as  a  check  on  the  ideas  of  the  members  of  the  committee. 
These  projects  are  suggested,  at  first  without  attempting 
to  designate  the  exact  grade,  since  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  where  they  belong. 


MATERIAL  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  VARIOUS  GRADES     121 

PROJECTS  IN  FIRE  PREVENTION 

Kindergarten  and  Primary  Grades : 

1.  To  learn  how  to  help  the  firemen. 

2.  To  find  the  best  little  fireman's  helper  (search  for  stories 
of  children  who  helped). 

3.  To  make  a  set  of  rules  to  help  little  people  to  keep  fire 
chained  up. 

4.  To  make  up  a  play  to  show  the  other  children  how  to 
prevent  fire  from  breaking  loose. 

Middle  Grades : 

5.  How  to  make  homes  safe  against  fire. 

6.  Keep  a  record  of  fires  in  the  town  —  the  losses  —  the 
causes.     How  could  they  have  been  prevented? 

7.  Who  has  done  most  to  prevent  fires?     Biography. 

8.  What  materials  will  not  burn?     Fire-proofing. 

9.  What   things   burn   easily?     How   to   keep   them  from 
catching  fire. 

10.  What  causes  fires  from  within  the  house? 

1 1 .  What  causes  fires  from  without  the  house  ? 

Upper  Grades : 

12.  What  a  housewife  needs  to  know  about  fire. 

13.  What  a  camper  needs  to  know  about  fire. 

14.  What  fire  dangers  are  there  in  our  town?     What  can  we 
do  to  lessen  them? 

15.  Organization  of  a  fire  patrol. 

16.  How  does  electricity  cause  fires? 

17.  What  is  our  town  doing  to  prevent  fires? 

1 8.  When  property  is  destroyed  by  fire,  who  is  the  loser? 

High  School : 

19.  Why  America's  fire  loss  is  so  much  greater  than  that  of 
other  countries. 

20.  How  can  fire  insurance  rates  be  reduced? 

21.  Is  our  national  government  doing  enough  to  prevent  fire 
losses  ? 

22.  Publicity  campaign  :  To  show  our  citizens  that  they  are 
playing  with  fire ;  why  they  ought  to  stop  it,  and  how. 

23.  How  much  do  we  spend  for  fire  protection?     Is  it  too 
much? 


122  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT  MATTER 

24.  Who  i.-,  responsible  when  lives  are  lost  by  fire? 

25.  Scientific  control  of  fire.     Inventions. 

26.  History  of  fire  prevention. 

It  is  proposed  that  teachers  make  selections  from  among 
these  projects,  try  them  out,  and  report  results  in  detail.  In 
this  way  it  is  thought  that  the  most  valuable  projects  for  the 
various  grades  will  be  determined  and  detailed  suggestions  ob- 
tained in  regard  to  methods. 

PROBLEM  89.  —  A  high  school  teacher  belongs  to  a  teachers' 
association.  At  one  of  the  meetings  a  paper  is  presented  ad- 
vocating differentiation  of  courses  in  the  upper  grammar  grades. 
This  leads  to  a  vigorous  discussion  in  which  many  different 
points  of  view  are  ardently  set  forth.  Some  of  the  members 
believe  that  differentiation  is  dangerous,  that  even  in  the  high 
school  there  should  be  a  uniform  course  of  study.  A  majority 
believe  that  variation  should  begin  at  some  stage  in  the  school 
course  but  there  is  no  agreement  as  to  where  this  stage  lies. 
Some  would  start  in  the  fourth  grade,  others  in  the  last  year  of 
the  high  school.  A  few  think  that  there  should  be  some  dif- 
ferentiation even  in  the  earliest  years.  The  interest  is  so  keen 
that  it  is  decided  to  continue  the  subject  at  the  next  meeting. 
Our  teacher  feels  that  he  ought  to  take  part  and,  as  he  is  a  new 
member,  is  anxious  to  make  a  good  impression.  He  therefore 
sets  to  work  to  study  the  question  carefully. 

The  teacher  recalls  that,  in  preparing  for  debates,  he  has 
found  it  useful  to  make  a  list  of  possible  arguments  on  both 
sides  of  the  question.  He  therefore  begins  his  study  by 
jotting  down  arguments  in  support  of  differentiation  and 
writing  beside  them  opposing  arguments.  When  com- 
pleted, his  statement  is  as  follows : 

In  Favor  of  Differentiation  Opposed  to  Differentiation 

i.  The  world's  accumulation  i.  All  the  people  of  a  nation 
of  knowledge  and  experience  should  possess  certain  knowl- 
is  far  too  great  for  any  one  per-  edge  in  common,  in  order  that 


MATERIAL  FOR   CHILDREN   OF   VARIOUS   GRADES       123 


son  to  acquire  it  all.  Further- 
more, it  is  constantly  increas- 
ing. Therefore  there  must  be 
selection. 

2.  The  needs  of  society  call 
for  a  great  variety  of  activities. 
Therefore    people    should    be 
trained  in  different  ways. 

3.  There  is  a  wide  range  of 
native  capacities  among  peo- 
ple.    To  develop  the  possibil- 
ities of  individuals  of  different 
capacities,  there  must  be  vari- 
ation in  education. 

4.  Individuals  of  a  given  de- 
gree   of   maturity   have    been 
subject    to    different    environ- 
mental factors :   home,  associ- 
ations with  people,  travel,  etc. 
This    variation   in    experience 
calls  for  differentiation  in  edu- 
cation. 

5.  Variation  in  interests  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  if 
individuals  are   to  attain   the 
greatest    possible     degree     of 
happiness       and      usefulness. 
Lack  of  interest  in  what  the 
school  offers  causes  many  pu- 
pils to  leave  school  earlier  than 
they  need. 

6.  The  time  during  which  chil- 
dren remain  in  school  varies. 
The  course  of  study  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  adjusted  to 


they    may    understand    each 
other  and  act  in  harmony. 

2.  In   a   democratic  country, 
nobody  should  be  denied  the 
opportunity  to  enter  any  field 
which  he  may  choose.     Differ- 
entiation tends  to  limit  such 
opportunity. 

3.  It   is   impossible   to   deter- 
mine    a     person's     capacities 
early    in    life.     Nobody    has 
the  right  to  steer  an  individ- 
ual in  a  definite  direction,  on 
the  assumption  that  his  capac- 
ities  will   not  permit  him   to 
travel  other  roads. 

4.  It  is  impracticable  to  make 
allowance     for     the     compli- 
cated  influences   which   affect 
a  pupil  outside  of  school. 

5.  Interests     are     transitory. 
A  person  who  does  only  what 
interests  him  becomes  "  soft." 

6.  It  is  impossible  to   tell  in 
advance  how  long  a  child  will 
remain    in    school.     Therefore 
it  should  be  assumed  that  he 
will  remain   until   the  end  of 
the  course. 

7.  It   will   cost   too   much   to 
provide  differentiated  courses. 
Differentiation  will  necessitate 
organization  of  smaller  classes. 


124  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

the  length  of  the  individual's  8.   It    will    be    more    difficult 

school  career,  so  that  he  will  to  secure  competent  teachers, 

be  as  well  prepared  as  possible  Teachers  can  be  more  easily 

for  a  happy  and  useful  life.  trained  for  a  uniform  course. 

Having  set  down  the  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the 
question  our  teacher  proceeds  to  examine  them.  The 
first  statement  in  favor  of  differentiation  seems  to  him 
self-evident.  There  must  be  differentiation  in  order  that 
the  world  may  profit  by  inherited  knowledge  and  in  order 
that  progress  may  continue.  The  only  questions  are  where 
differentiation  should  begin  and  on  what  principles  it  should 
be  made.  He  assents  also  to  the  proposition  that  some 
knowledge  should  be  held  in  common.  This,  he  feels,  is 
not  inconsistent  with  differentiation,  but  may  offer  a  clue 
as  to  the  time  for  beginning  to  differentiate.  He  is  inclined 
to  admit  that  a  uniform  course  of  study  would  be  easier 
to  administer  and  less  expensive  than  a  plan  of  differentia- 
tion, and  this  would  suggest  that  the  knowledge  needed  in 
common  should  be  imparted  during  the  period  of  compulsory 
education.  Would  it  be  a  sound  principle,  then,  to  post- 
pone differentiation  until  all  the  material  of  general  value 
has  been  taught?  Several  questions  upon  the  validity  of 
this  principle  occur  to  him  : 

i.  Is  the  purpose  to  be  served  by  uniformity  of  knowl- 
edge more  important  than  that  which  calls  for  differentia- 
tion, so  that,  if  either  is  sacrificed,  it  should  always  be 
the  latter?  For  example,  is  it  important  for  the  public 
welfare  that  a  child  who  has  unusual  talent  in  music  or  art 
should  be  taught  the  elementary  facts  of  geography  even 
if  this  curtails  his  time  for  practice  during  the  elementary 
school  period? 


DIFFERENTIATION    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER  125 

2.  Can  all  the  knowledge  that  should  be  held  in  com- 
mon be  acquired  in  the  years  of  childhood  or  does  some  of 
it  demand  greater  maturity?     The  teacher  questions  the 
ability  of  children  under  fourteen  to  grasp  some  of  the  ideas 
of  citizenship  which  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
public  welfare. 

3.  Can  the  abilities  and  ideas  which  are  of  general  value 
be  most  effectively  taught  by  the  use  of  the  same  subject 
matter  with  all  children? 

He  is  unable  to  come  to  any  definite  conclusion  but  feels 
that  he  ought  to  keep  his  mind  open  to  the  possibility 
that  some  differentiation  may  be  advantageous  even  in 
the  early  years  of  the  school  course,  and  that  some  meas- 
ure of  uniformity  may  be  needed  to  the  very  end. 

The  argument  that  the  needs  of  society  require  differen- 
tiation of  training  must,  he  thinks,  be  admitted  by  everyone. 
The  question  here  also  is  not  whether  there  shall  be  differen- 
tiation, but  when  shall  it  begin  and  what  shall  be  its  nature? 
It  may  be  that  paths  should  not  begin  to  separate  until  after 
school  days  are  over,  but  in  that  case  the  schools  will  con- 
tribute nothing  toward  the  special  training  needed  for  the 
various  kinds  of  service  to  be  rendered.  It  seems  to  him 
that  the  usual  course  does  in  fact  provide  much  better  for 
the  small  minority  which  is  headed  toward  a  professional 
career  than  for  those  who  will  fill  the  humbler  positions. 
Is  it  not  probable  that  some  of  the  material  which  is  suitable 
for  the  type  of  pupil  who  will  later  go  to  college  may  well 
be  dispensed  with  in  the  case  of  the  pupil  who  will  become 
an  artisan  and  that  some  ideas  are  important  for  the  latter 
which  are  not  significant  for  the  former  at  the  same  age? 

The  second  argument  for  the  negative  was  emphasized 


126  PROBLEMS    OF   SUBJECT   MATTER 

very  strongly  at  the  meeting  of  the  association.  One  of 
our  cherished  ideals  is  that  any  American  boy  may  hope 
to  be  president  of  the  United  States.  "  It  would  be  undemo- 
cratic," asserted  the  opponents  of  differentiation,  "to  en- 
courage or  even  to  permit  a  child  to  take  a  side  path  leading 
away  from  the  road  to  the  top."  This  seems  plausible,  but 
as  our  teacher  reflects  upon  it,  he  comes  to  the  conclusion 
that  it  ignores  many  evident  facts.  If  the  development  of 
all  children  toward  their  greatest  possibilities  of  happiness 
and  usefulness  can  be  gained  by  keeping  them  in  the  same 
path  as  long  as  they  remain  in  school,  it  would  be  unwise 
to  allow  them  to  branch  off  into  routes  which  will  limit  their 
future  progress,  but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  this  uniform 
course  fails  to  provide  the  best  development  of  all  children, 
then  keeping  them  together  in  a  road,  which,  for  many 
of  them,  does  not  lead  to  their  destinations,  would  cause 
serious  waste.  The  fact  is  that  a  large  proportion  of  boys 
and  girls  turn  aside  from  the  general  school  path  at  various 
points  along  the  way,  and  from  that  time  on  travel  very 
divergent  routes.  Has  the  uniform  school  course  given 
such  pupils  the  best  preparation  for  their  future  lives? 
If  not,  they  have  paid  a  high  price  for  their  brief  journey 
toward  the  summit  which  only  a  few  ever  reach  and  there 
has  been  a  corresponding  loss  to  the  public.  Our  teacher 
wonders  whether  it  would  not  be  easier  for  pupils  who  show 
at  any  time  unsuspected  possibilities,  to  regain  the  path 
leading  to  higher  education  than  for  those  who  fail  in  a 
course  designed  for  all  to  make  up  the  time  spent  in  work 
without  real  progress. 

The  third  argument  in  favor  of  differentiation  seems  to 
the  teacher  to  be  the  most  fundamental  consideration  of  ;ill. 


DIFFERENTIATION    OF    SUBJECT    MATTER  127 

His  own  experience  accords  with  the  statement  that  children 
differ  widely  in  capacity  and  his  reading  of  the  results  of 
scientific  studies  has  convinced  him  that  the  variation  is 
even  wider  than  casual  observation  would  indicate.  He 
knows  that  some  children  respond  to  material  which  others 
are  unable  to  comprehend  and  that  the  ablest  are  often 
bored  by  subject  matter  which  seems  to  fit  the  duller  mem- 
bers of  a  class.  It  seems  reasonable  to  believe  that  the 
amount  and  kind  of  subject  matter  should  be  adapted  to  the 
individual  abilities  of  the  pupils  in  order  to  produce  the 
best  results. 

The  objection  that  a  child's  capacities  cannot  be  deter- 
mined with  certainty  seems  pertinent  but  not  conclusive. 
While  children  often  develop  in  an  unexpected  way,  careful 
observation  during  the  elementary  school  period  is  not 
valueless.  The  intelligence  tests,  while  not  an  infallible 
guide,  are  an  important  aid.  He  agrees  that  no  teacher 
ought  to  take  the  responsibility  of  steering  a  pupil  in  a 
definite  direction  but  this  does  not  seem  to  him  a  valid 
reason  for  permitting  no  differentiation.  If  a  teacher 
confines  his  efforts  to  a  search  for  subject  matter  which  will 
stimulate  a  pupil  to  greater  effort  or  which  will  be  of  value 
in  a  course  which  the  pupil  has  already  marked  out  for 
himself,  there  would  seem  to  be  little  danger  of  harming 
him.  The  reaction  of  the  pupil  to  the  material  seems  more 
important  than  the  material  itself. 

The  variation  in  pupils  due  to  different  environmental 
factors  and  variations  in  interest  are  facts  of  common 
observation.  Our  teacher  can  find  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  the  development  of  individual  pupils  would  be  fur- 
thered by  taking  these  into  account.  He  sees  the  dim- 


128  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

culties  involved  in  attempting  to  study  home  influences 
and  other  elements  of  environment  which  have  helped  to 
make  the  child  what  he  is,  but  he  is  not  satisfied  with  the 
contention  that  these  conditions  are  too  complicated  for 
practical  consideration.  This  appears  to  be  a  question  of 
cost.  If  an  elementary  teacher  has  forty  or  more  pupils 
in  a  class,  or  if  a  high  school  teacher  has  to  deal  with  more 
than  a  hundred  individuals,  he  will  hardly  be  able  to  make 
a  careful  study  of  many  of  them.  If,  however,  it  appears 
to  be  a  public  necessity  that  education  should  be  made  more 
effective,  and  if  failure  to  consider  individual  peculiarities 
can  be  shown  to  be  a  retarding  factor,  it  seems  probable 
that  public  sentiment  can  be  developed  in  support  of  greater 
expenditure  in  the  interest  of  better  results. 

"It  is  true,"  admits  our  teacher,  "that  pupils'  interests 
are  frequently  transitory."  He  sees  a  danger  in  allowing 
individual  whims  to  dominate  school  work,  but  he  has  in 
mind  many  cases  in  which  pupils  have  done  the  hardest 
kind  of  work  under  the  stimulus  of  their  own  purposes,  and 
others  in  which  insistence  upon  work  which  made  no  appeal 
to  pupils  produced  effort  chiefly  by  the  teacher.  He  is 
inclined  to  think  that  enthusiastic  effort  in  carrying  out  a 
'plan  which  proves  to  be  of  temporary  interest  results  in 
more  development  for  the  pupil  than  performance  of  tasks 
which  seem  more  valuable  to  the  adult,  but  which  call 
forth  little  response  from  the  child. 

Should  any  attempt  be  made  to  adjust  the  course  of 
study  to  the  probable  length  of  the  pupil's  school  career? 
The  advocates  of  uniformity  fix  their  attention  upon  what 
seems  to  them  an  ideal  course,  through  which  all  the  pupils 
who  are  capable  of  mastering  it  are  to  pass.  In  practice 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER  I2Q 

this  scheme  acts  as  a  sieve.  A  very  small  proportion  of  the 
pupils  graduate  from  the  high  school.  The  great  majority 
drop  out  along  the  way.  In  very  many  of  these  cases, 
failure  is  the  cause  of  withdrawal.  Many  could  certainly 
be  held  in  school  longer  if  the  work  were  better  adapted  to 
their  needs.  It  would  seem  sensible  to  make  experimental 
changes  in  the  course  with  a  view  to  keeping  pupils  longer 
in  school  and,  since  so  many  drop  out  early,  to  try  to  see 
that  an  individual  shall  get  that  which  will  be  of  most  value 
to  him. 

The  argument  that  we  cannot  tell  how  long  the  school 
career  of  an  individual  pupil  will  be  is  true,  of  course,  but 
the  assumption  that  a  pupil  will  remain  until  the  end  of  the 
high  school  course  will  be  wrong  in  a  large  majority  of  cases. 
With  many  pupils  we  can  tell  approximately  how  long  they 
will  remain.  It  seems  probable  that,  by  adjusting  differen- 
tiated courses  so  as  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  pupils  of 
different  types,  we  can  eliminate  some  of  the  waste  and 
increase  the  probability  that  an  individual  pupil  will  come 
in  contact  with  the  subject  matter  which  is  of  most  value 
to  him. 

The  objections  of  increased  cost  and  difficulty  of  securing 
competent  teachers  are  recognized  by  our  teacher  as  real 
but  not  vital  considerations.  They  can  be  overcome,  he 
thinks,  if  the  result  aimed  at  is  of  sufficient  importance. 

After  such  reflection  as  outlined  above,  the  teacher 
formulates  the  following  tentative  propositions : 

i.  The  principal  elements  in  education  arc  the  develop- 
ing child  and  the  needs  of  society.  The  course  of  study  is 
to  be  regarded  not  as  an  end  in  itself,  but  as  a  means  of 
developing  the  child  toward  his  greatest  happiness  and 

E.    T.    I'ROB. 9 


130  PROBLEMS   OF   SUBJECT  MATTER 

usefulness.     The  aim  should  be  to  select  subject  matter 
in  accordance  with  its  value  for  individual  development. 

2.  There  is  no  stage  at  which  the  needs  of  all  members  of 
a  group  of  pupils  are  identical.     Hence  some  variation  in 
subject  matter  will  probably  be  desirable  at  all  stages. 

3.  It  is  important  that  some  ideas  and  facts  be  held  in 
common  in  order  that  people  may  understand  each  other 
and  may  act  in  harmony.    In  acquiring  this  common  knowl- 
edge, however,  it  may  sometimes  be  economical  for  different 
individuals  to  make  use  of  different  material. 

4.  The  multiplicity  of  services  required  by  society  de- 
mands a  variation  in  training  individuals.     The  aim  should 
be  to  have  each  individual  fit  himself  for  a  life  of  the  greatest 
usefulness  of  which  he  is  capable. 

5.  The  degree  of  differentiation  should  increase  as  the 
child  grows  older.     Until  he  has  discovered  the  field  in 
which  he  is  likely  to  be  most  useful,  his  education  should 
not  be  narrowly  limited. 

6.  Material  which   arouses  keen   interest  and   earnest 
effort  contributes  more  to  a  child's  development  than  that 
which  has  been  selected  on  logical  grounds  as  the  most 
important  knowledge. 

7.  The  actual  effect  of  subject  matter  upon  a  pupil's 
development  and  the  actual  use  which  he  makes  of  it  are 
better   tests  of  its  educational  value   than  preconceived 
ideas  of  what  it  ought  to  accomplish. 

8.  Practical  difficulties  of  cost  and  deficiencies  of  edu- 
cational  facilities   and   teaching   ability   interfere   with  a 
thoroughgoing  application  of  the  foregoing  principles.     The 
aim  should  be  to  overcome  the  obstacles  as  rapidly  a.-j  pos- 
sible. 


DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  73! 

ADDITIONAL  PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  SUBJECT  MATTER 

11.  It  is  probable  that  some  things  can  be  learned  more  econom- 
ically at  one  age  than  at  another.     We  must  try  to  discover 
the  facts  in  regard  to  this  question. 

12.  Repetition  is  essential  to  learning.     It  is  not  good  practice 
to  select  a  body  of  important  subject  matter  and  divide  it 
among  the  various  years  of  the  pupil's  course.     Important 
ideas  should  recur  again  and  again. 

13.  Material  which  is  likely  to  be  used  by  nearly  everyone  should 
have  first  place.     Material  which  will  be  of  use  to  a  few 
should  be  left  to  be  acquired  by  them  as  needed,  unless 
they  can  acquire  it  without  imposing  it  upon  the  rest  of 
the  class. 

14.  There  should  be  differentiation  in  accordance  with  abilities, 
interests,  environment,  future  plans  for  education,  voca- 
tional  plans.     Differentiation    should    increase   as   pupils 
become  more  mature. 

15.  The  determination  of  the  most  valuable  subject  matter  for 
a  given  grade  or  locality  or  group  of  pupils  requires  thorough 
study  and  experimentation. 

16.  Breadth  of  interest  makes  for  happiness  and  efficiency. 
The  range  of  subject  matter  must  not  be  too  closely  limited. 

17.  As  a  pupil  becomes  older,  he  should  concentrate  his  attention 
more  and  more  upon  a  certain  field. 


PROBLEM  90.  —  A  teacher  is  put  on  a  committee  to  work  out  a 
course  of  study  in  geography  for  the  elementary  schools.  As 
she  begins  to  think  about  the  problem,  she  finds  that  she  has  no 
very  clear  ideas  of  what  should  be  assigned  to  a  given  grade. 
The  only  clue  that  she  can  think  of  is  to  find  out  what  is  done 
in  other  school  systems  and  what  is  included  in  the  commonly 
used  textbooks.  It  occurs  to  her  that  a  better  basis  for  the 
selection  of  material  ought  to  be  used  by  the  committee. 

PROBLEM  91.  —  A  teacher  who  is  acquainted  with  both  the 
kindergarten  and  first-grade  work  sees  a  problem  concerning 


132  PROBLEMS    OF    SUBJECT   MATTER 

the  difference  in  demands  made  upon  the  two  classes.  In  the 
kindergarten,  effort  is  put  mainly  upon  handwork,  games, 
story  plays,  rhythm,  and  song.  Progress  is  often  rapid  but 
there  is  no  definite  curriculum  —  merely  the  general  aim  of 
securing  the  natural  development  of  the  child  through  home  and 
play  experiences.  In  the  first  half  of  the  first  grade  there  are 
definite  assignments;  for  example,  in  reading,  the  primer  is 
to  be  completed  and  reviewed  and  a  supplementary  reader 
finished. 

Half  of  the  class  take  the  work  easily  and  naturally.  The 
other  half  struggle  and  need  much  pushing  and  drilling.  The 
teacher  feels  that  the  transition  from  one  type  of  work  to 
the  other  is  too  sudden.  She  finds  plenty  of  sympathy  for 
her  point  of  view  but  nobody  seems  to  know  what  changes  ought 
to  be  made. 

PROBLEM  92.  —  A  third-grade  teacher  reads  an  article  urging 
that  children  of  all  grades  should  be  trained  in  habits  and  ideals 
leading  to  good  citizenship.  She  is  impressed  by  the  author's 
view,  and,  as  no  definite  suggestions  are  given  as  to  work  which 
would  be  appropriate  for  children  of  different  ages,  she  under- 
takes to  select  suitable  material  for  her  grade. 

PROBLEM  93.  —  A  seventh-grade  teacher  has  to  make  prepara- 
tion for  a  lesson  on  current  events. 

PROBLEM  94.  —  The  time  allotment  for  the  fourth  grade  allows 
thirty  minutes  per  week  for  nature  study  but  makes  no  specific 
requirements.  A  teacher  undertakes  to  make  an  outline  of 
work  for  the  year. 

PROBLEM  95.  —  An  eighth-grade  teacher  is  asked  by  a  parent 
to  recommend  a  course  for  her  daughter  who  is  about  to  enter 
high  school.  The  girl  has  average  ability  but  no  marked  pref- 
erences. She  will  not  go  to  college  and  it  is  not  probable  that 
she  will  have  to  earn  her  living.  The  subjects  open  to  her  in 
the  first  year  i't  I.igh  school  are  English,  Latin,  French,  Spanish, 
ancient  history,  nlgebra,  commercial  arithmetic,  elementary 
science,  bookkecpir-g,  typewriting,  cooking,  sewing,  drawing. 
She  can  take  at  most  five  subjects  and  must  take  four. 


DIFFERENTIATION    OF    SUBJECT    MATTER  133 

PROBLEM  96.  —  A  course  of  study  for  the  second  grade  provides 
that  the  work  center  about  the  theme  "  Primitive  Life."  A 
parent  cannot  see  any  sense  in  it  and  says  that  the  schools  are 
wasting  time  in  silly  fads. 

PROBLEM  97.  —  A  candidate  for  a  high  school  science  position 
is  asked  whether  he  would  have  the  same  subject  matter  in 
physics  for  boys  and  girls. 

PROBLEM  98.  —  A  common  practice  in  junior  high  schools  is 
to  have  the  same  course  of  study  for  all  pupils  except  that  a 
pupil  is  permitted  to  choose  one  or  possibly  two  subjects  from  a 
short  list  of  electives.  In  other  schools,  pupils  are  grouped 
according  to  ability  or  future  plans,  and  subject  matter  is 
selected  in  accordance  with  the  supposed  needs  of  each  group. 
A  teacher  in  a  school  of  the  first  type  declares  at  a  gathering 
that  the  second  plan  is  not  sound.  A  representative  of  the 
second  type  of  school  feels  that  she  ought  to  stand  up  for  her 
own  school,  but  doesn't  feel  sure  of  her  ground. 

PROBLEM  99.  —  A  high  school  teacher  of  science  makes  the 
remark  that  science  should  not  be  studied  in  the  elementary 
school.  Pupils  who  have  had  some  work  in  science  feel  that 
they  know  all  about  it  and  are  unfitted  for  taking  up  the  subject 
in  a  serious  way.  He  wants  to  lay  the  foundation  himself  so 
that  it  will  be  right. 

PROBLEM  100.  —  A  teacher  desires  to  modify  the  course  of  study 
which  she  considers  unsuited  to  her  class.  She  meets  the  ob- 
jection that  if  any  of  the  pupils  are  later  transferred  to  another 
school,  they  will  not  be  able  to  work  in  the  same  grade. 

PROBLEM  101.  —  One  of  the  schools  in  a  city  school  system 
draws  its  pupils  almost  entirely  from  homes  in  which  little  or 
no  English  is  spoken  and  where  American  ideals  are  little  un- 
derstood. Poverty  is  common  and  children  leave  school  early 
to  help  in  the  family  support.  A  teacher  thinks  that  the 
course  of  study  prescribed  for  the  city  is  not  well  adapted  to 
this  particular  school.  The  superintendent  asks  her  what 
changes  she  would  recommend. 


CHAPTER   VII 

PROBLEMS    OF   METHOD 

RELATION  OF  METHOD  TO  PURPOSE  ;  THE  SOCIALIZED 
RECITATION  ;  THE  COMMON  RECITATION  ;  THE  PROJECT 
METHOD 

PROBLEM  102.  —  The  principal  of  a  school  observes  a  lesson  in 
a  second-grade  classroom.  The  teacher  gives  out  sheets  of 
colored  paper  to  the  pupils,  first  directing  them  to  sit  with  folded 
hands  until  she  tells  them  what  to  do.  She  has  a  pupil  dis- 
tribute scissors.  Then  she  holds  a  sheet  up  where  most  of  the 
pupils  can  see  it,  places  a  ruler  along  one  edge,  and  says  :  "  Now 
watch  and  see  just  what  I  do."  She  then  makes  a  dot  opposite 
the  two  inch  mark  and  says :  "  Now  you  may  all  do  just  as  1 
did  and  then  lay  your  pencils  down."  Most  of  the  children  do 
it  instantly.  Some  do  not  understand  and  look  to  see  what 
others  have  done.  Some  put  the  dot  on  the  wrong  edge.  The 
teacher  goes  about  examining  each  paper  and  directing  those 
who  have  made  mistakes.  She  rebukes  one  or  two  who  guessed 
what  was  to  come  next  and  made  more  than  one  mark.  It 
takes  her  several  minutes  to  see  that  all  the  papers  are  right. 
Then  she  holds  up  the  paper  again  and  puts  a  similar  mark  on 
the  opposite  edge  of  the  paper,  after  which  the  pupils  do  it, 
and  have  their  work  approved  or  corrected.  Successive  steps 
in  making  marks  and  ruling  lines  are  carried  out  in  the  same  way. 
After  a  half  hour,  the  teacher  says:  "  We  shall  have  to  stop 
now.  Put  your  name  on  your  paper."  The  principal  learns 
that  the  lesson  is  to  be  continued  "  day  after  to-morrow."  At 
that  time  he  observes  the  same  procedure,  involving  cutting 
and  pasting.  As  the  work  nears  completion  and  the  children 
discover  that  the  result  is  to  be  a  box,  the  teacher  has  a  good 
deal  of  trouble  to  prevent  some  of  them  from  going  ahead  with- 
out wailing  for  her  directions.  Finally  the  boxes  are  completed. 
It  would  take  close  observation  to  detect  any  difference  between 
them. 

134 


METHOD    AND    PURPOSE  135 

THE  principal  says:  "  I  have  a  few  questions  to  ask  about 
this  lesson.  What  purpose  did  you  have  in  view  in  planning  and 
carrying  out  the  work?  Did  the  accomplishment  come  up  to 
your  expectations?  Can  you  suggest  any  better  method  of 
accomplishing  your  purpose  ?  I  wish  you  would  consider  these 
questions  and  discuss  them  with  me  to-morrow  afternoon." 

THE  teacher  spends  very  little  time  in  preparation  for 
the  interview  as  she  has  answers  ready  immediately.  She 
considers  the  lesson  very  successful,  having  produced  as 
good  a  set  of  boxes  as  she  has  ever  seen  in  a  second  grade. 
She  is  somewhat  curious  to  know  what  the  principal  has  in 
mind  but  she  feels  quite  capable  of  defending  her  method 
against  any  objections  which  he  may  raise. 

The  principal  opens  the  conference  by  saying :  "That  was 
a  remarkably  fine  set  of  boxes  which  your  class  produced. 
You  were  very  successful  in  directing  and  controlling  the 
class  and  getting  a  uniformly  good  product.  I  want  to 
discuss  the  lesson  with  you  because  I  know  that  your  chief 
purpose  was  not  to  get  boxes  and  I  have  some  doubts  as  to 
whether  there  was  as  much  education  in  the  lesson  as  you 
might  have  accomplished.  Now  just  what  was  your 
purpose?  " 

"To  train  the  pupils  to  use  their  hands,  to  measure,  draw, 
cut,  and  paste  accurately,"  she  replies. 

"Were  you  satisfied  with  the  results?" 

"More  than  satisfied,"  she  answers.  "You  say  your- 
self that  the  results  were  remarkably  good." 

"You  misunderstood  me,"  the  principal  objects.  "I 
said  the  boxes  were  remarkably  good,  but  they  were  not  the 
results  you  set  out  to  accomplish.  The  question  is  whether 
the  children  got  as  much  training  in  the  processes  involved 
as  they  might  have  had  in  the  time  spent.  You  do  not 


136  PROBLEMS   OF   METHOD 

realize  how  much  of  those  boxes  was  your  own  work  and 
how  little  the  children  contributed." 

"Why  I  hardly  touched  the  work,"  she  retorts  indig- 
nantly. 

"True!  but  you  directed  every  step.  No  child  was 
allowed  to  go  wrong.  You  did  all  the  planning  and  prac- 
tically you  did  the  work  because,  although  you  did  not 
actually  draw  the  lines  or  hold  the  scissors,  you  stood  over 
the  children  and  saw  to  it  that  the  work  was  done  as  you 
intended.  You  alone  knew  what  it  was  all  about.  The 
children  were  not  trying  to  do  their  work  accurately  in 
order  to  accomplish  a  purpose.  They  were  simply  obey- 
ing you." 

"But  suppose  I  had  allowed  more  freedom,"  the  teacher 
objects.  "  Some  of  the  children  would  have  spoiled  their 
paper  at  once,  and  we  should  have  had  very  few  decent 
boxes." 

"Very  likely,  but  that  would  have  done  no  harm,  would 
it,  if  the  children  had  learned  more  by  making  mistakes?" 

"Well,  how  would  you  have  done  it?  "  she  asks  rather 
caustically. 

"Oh!  I  couldn't  do  it  very  well,  myself,"  he  answers. 
"I  could  not  handle  little  children  as  you  do,  but  I  should 
like  to  suggest  a  method  which  I  wish  you  would  try.  I 
think  you  could  get  more  development  for  the  children. 
See  what  you  think  of  it. 

In  the  first  place,  I  think  you  should  have  a  different 
purpose,  or  an  additional  purpose  more  important  than  the 
others.  The  chief  purpose  would  be  to  give  the  children 
experience  in  making  plans  and  carrying  them  out.  To  do 
this,  they  would  need  to  learn  to  use  rulers,  cut  and  paste, 


METHOD   AND   PURPOSE  137 

and  you  would  help  them  in  this,  but  I  think  that,  in  trying 
to  make  something  which  they  really  wanted  to  make,  most 
of  the  children  would  learn  these  processes  more  rapidly 
than  if  they  are  allowed  merely  to  do  what  the  teacher 
directs. 

It  would  be  best  to  have  the  plans  originate  with  the 
children  and  to  allow  different  children  to  work  on  different 
projects,  but  in  order  to  simplify  the  problem  and  keep  it 
as  much  like  your  own  as  possible,  let  us  suppose  that  every- 
one is  to  make  a  box.  You  might  show  the  children  several 
boxes  of  different  colors,  sizes,  and  shapes,  telling  them  that 
the  boxes  had  been  made  by  some  little  friends  of  yours 
to  hold  Christmas  candy,  that  you  had  thought  they  might 
like  to  make  some  like  them.  You  will  agree  that  the 
children  would  be  eager  to  do  so.  They  would  choose  the 
box  which  pleased  them  most.  If  any  of  the  class  wished 
to  make  a  box  different  from  any  of  the  samples  and  if 
you  thought  that  he  could  do  it,  you  would  encourage  him 
to  try,  or  possibly  advise  him  to  make  one  like  the  model 
first  and  afterward  work  out  his  own  plan. 

Then  would  ccme  the  question  of  how  to  go  to  work, 
and  here  would  be  an  opportunity  for  the  children  to  think, 
which  ought  not  to  be  lost  by  telling  them  too  much. 
You  might  leave  the  boxes  for  a  day  or  two  where  the 
children  could  examine  them  carefully  before  beginning 
the  work. 

There  might  then  be  a  discussion  of  the  various  steps. 
Some  of  the  children  will  probably  suggest  that  the  boxes 
be  unfolded  so  as  to  see  just  how  the  paper  is  cut.  Some 
will  see,  without  help,  what  measurements  to  make.  The 
others  can  be  given  whatever  help  they  need.  They  will 


138  PROBLEMS    OF   METHOD 

appreciate  the  advantage  of  working  out  the  problem  first 
with  cheap  paper  so  as  to  avoid  spoiling  the  good  paper  by 
making  blunders.  You  ought  not  to  be  troubled  by  mis- 
takes, if  a  child  is  doing  his  best.  Simply  help  him  to  dis- 
cover his  error  and  avoid  making  the  same  mistake  again. 

If  you  use  this  plan,  you  must  expect  much  greater  varia- 
tion in  the  product  than  you  got  the  other  day,  but  do  you 
not  think  that  the  children  will  learn  more?" 

"Yes,"  she  admits.  "I  can  see  that  there  would  be 
more  opportunity  for  thinking  and  more  training  in  self- 
reliance.  The  children  would  be  more  interested  in  the 
work.  The  chief  difficulty  that  I  see  is  in  guiding  forty 
children.  I  could  do  it  with  a  small  group  but  I  am  not 
sure  that  it  would  be  practicable  with  a  regular  class. 
However,  I  will  try  it.  I  begin  to  see  that  there  is  not  much 
educational  value  in  the  sort  of  handwork  which  I  have 
been  teaching  and,  if  necessary,  I  can  cut  down  the  number 
of  lessons  and  divide  the  class  into  two  sections.  Perhaps 
some  of  the  abler  children  can  act  as  assistants.  At  any 
rate,  you  have  given  me  a  new  idea." 

PROBLEM  103.  —  Miss  D.  observes  a  "  socialized  recitation." 
She  is  impressed  with  the  mental  activity  of  the  children  and 
with  the  freedom  with  which  they  express  themselves.  On 
trying  the  plan  in  her  own  class,  she  finds  that  pupils  tend  to 
use  set  forms  of  expression,  criticize  trivial  faults,  and  show 
little  ability  to  see  the  important  points  of  the  subject  or  their 
relations. 

Miss  D.  discusses  her  difficulties  with  other  teachers. 
Most  of  them  have  observed  so-called  "socialized  recita- 
tions" and  a  few  have  tried  to  introduce  them  in  their 
own  classes.  All  have  observed  the  same  faults  which 


THE    SOCIALIZED   RECITATION  139 

disturb  our  teacher.  Pupils  say,  one  after  another,  such 
things  as  "Excuse  me,  John.  You  said  'river'  and  you 
should  have  said  'rivers.'  '  "I  liked  your  reading,  Mary, 
because  you  read  with  good  expression  and  you  stood  well." 
The  pupil  criticized  says :  "Thank  you,  Helen ;  thank  you, 
Albert." 

One  of  the  teachers  exclaims :  "It  all  seems  so  artificial. 
The  children  talk  more  than  in  the  usual  recitation  and  the 
teacher  doesn't  monopolize  so  much  of  the  time.  I  suppose 
that  is  an  improvement,  but  there  is  no  spontaneity.  The 
children  aren't  really  developing  initiative  or  cooperation 
or  ability  to  think  and  speak  for  themselves.  They  arc- 
just  copying  the  teacher,  going  through  conventional 
motions  without  any  real  purpose.  If  that  is  all  there  is 
to  the  ' socialized  recitation'  I  think  it  is  a  waste  of  time." 

"There  are  greater  possibilities  in  the  socialized  recita- 
tion," Miss  D.  declares.  "I  know  because  I  saw  something 
entirely  different  when  I  visited  Miss  W.'s  class  at  the  Bur- 
ton School.  The  children  were  natural  but  very  enthusiastic. 
They  spoke  freely  and  did  the  best  thinking  that  I  have 
cvrer  seen  children  do.  There  was  nothing  parrot-like 
:/bout  it.  They  were  thoroughly  in  earnest.  It  is  possible 
10  have  a  genuine  social  spirit  in  the  classroom  for  I  have 
seen  it.  I  have  missed  something  and  I  am  going  to  find 
out  what  it  is." 

Miss  D.  decides  to  observe  closely  a  socialized  recitation 
of  the  unsatisfactory  type  and  compare  it  with  Miss  W.'s 
work,  and  see  if  she  can  detect  the  causes  of  the  difference 
in  results.  She  explains  her  purpose  to  one  of  the  teachers 
and  arranges  to  visit  the  latter's  class. 

The  lesson  observed  is  on  the  geography  of  the  Western 


140  PROBLEMS   OF  METHOD 

States.  The  teacher  calls  upon  one  of  the  children  to  take 
charge.  The  girl  goes  to  the  front  of  the  room  and  pro- 
ceeds to  ask  questions:  "Name  the  Western  States, 
John!"  John  rises  and  says  :  " California,  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, Idaho,  Montana,  Wyoming,  Utah,  Colorado, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico."  Several  children  stand.  John 
addresses  them  in  turn:  "Helen!"  "Excuse  me,  John, 
you  said  '  Utaw '  and  you  should  have  said  '  Utar. '  ' 
"Thank  you,  Helen.  Henry!"  "Excuse  me,  John,  you 
left  out  Nevada."  "Thank  you,  Henry.  Louise  ! "  "Ex- 
cuse me,  John,  you  should  have  said  :  'The  Western  States 
are  California,  Washington,'  etc.  You  didn't  give  a  com- 
plete sentence."  "Thank  you,  Louise."  Another  question 
is  asked  and  the  same  procedure  follows.  Presently  the 
leader  calls  upon  another  pupil  to  take  her  place,  and  so  it 
goes  on. 

It  is  evident  that  the  questions  are  all  aimed  to  get  a 
reproduction  of  the  textbook  statements.  Some  of  the 
pupils  invariably  offer  criticisms.  Some  take  no  part  at 
all.  The  teacher  occasionally  says:  "I  noticed  an  error," 
or  puts  in  a  question.  At  the  end  of  the  period,  she  says : 
"For  to-morrow  you  may  take  the  next  topic  'Industries 
of  the  Western  States'  on  page  325." 

Miss  D.  then  writes  to  Miss  W.  and  asks  permission  to 
see  another  socialized  recitation,  preferably  one  in  geog- 
raphy. Miss  W.  appoints  a  time.  When  Miss  D.  enters 
the  classroom,  Miss  W.  says:  "Children,  Miss  D.  has 
come  to  visit  us  again.  She  is  interested  in  our  work  in 
geography.  I  think  she  would  like  to  know  just  what 
we  have  been  doing."  One  of  the  pupils  promptly  rises  and 
says:  "We  are  traveling  all  over  the  United  States  — 


THE    SOCIALIZED   RECITATION  141 

making  believe,  you  know.  Each  of  us  has  studied  all 
about  one  of  the  states  and  he  takes  us  with  him  to  visit 
it.  To-day,  Arthur  is  going  to  take  us  to  Colorado." 

Arthur  then  comes  to  the  front  of  the  room,  bringing 
a  pile  of  pictures,  pamphlets,  newspapers,  etc.  He  pulls 
down  the  map  of  the  United  States  and  picks  up  some  time- 
tables. Then  he  says:  "We  start  from  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  Station  in  New  York  at  10  A.M.  The  fare  to 
Denver  is  $75.00  and  the  berths  on  the  sleeping  car  cost 
$20  more."  Someone  asks:  "How  much  will  the  whole 
trip  cost?"  "Well,"  he  replies,  "we  ought  to  allow  at 
least  five  dollars  a  day  besides  the  railroad  fares  back  and 
forth,  and  we  shall  be  gone  three  weeks."  He  does  some 
figuring  on  the  blackboard.  "We  ought  to  have  $250 
anyway  and  we  may  want  to  buy  some  things,  so  I  think 
we  would  better  take  $300."  He  points  to  the  map  and 
says  :  "We  go  across  New  Jersey,  stopping  at  Trenton,  and 
get  to  Philadelphia  at  12.20.  In  the  afternoon,  we  travel 
across  Pennsylvania  and  get  to  Pittsburgh  late  in  the  eve- 
ning. We  don't  see  anything  of  Ohio  because  we  are  asleep 
and  when  we  get  up  in  the  morning  we  are  nearly  across 
Indiana.  We  get  to  Chicago  at  8.00  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing and  stay  there  until  i.oo  o'clock,  when  we  take  a  train 
on  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  Railroad  for 
Denver.  That  takes  us  through  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Ne- 
braska. We  cross  the  Mississippi  at  Burlington,  and  the 
Missouri  at  Council  Bluffs  and  Omaha." 

"Do  we  go  on  a  ferry?  "  asks  one  of  the  class.  "No,  there 
are  bridges  at  both  places.  In  the  morning  we  are  in 
Nebraska  and  it  takes  us  most  of  the  day  to  get  across  the 
state.  In  the  afternoon  we  begin  to  go  up  hiii  and  they 


142  PROBLEMS   OF  METHOD 

put  on  two  engines.  Late  in  the  afternoon,  we  see  a  faint 
line  of  white,  away  on  ahead,  and  someone  says:  'There 
are  the  Rocky  Mountains.'  They  are  still  a  very  long 
way  off.  The  air  is  so  clear  that  you  can  see  a  very  long 
distance." 

One  of  the  pupils  interrupts:  "My  uncle  told  me  a 
story  about  that,"  and  then  he  tells  the  story  of  the  man  who 
had  been  so  often  deceived  by  distances  in  the  clear  Colorado 
air  that  he  would  not  trust  his  judgment  when  he  came  to  a 
little  brook,  two  or  three  feet  wide,  but  took  off  his  clothes, 
prepared  to  swim. 

Arthur  continues  :  "The  mountains  get  nearer  and  nearer, 
and  as  we  come  to  Denver,  they  seem  almost  on  top  of  us, 
but  in  all  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  the  land  is  a  prairie 
with  ranch-houses  once  in  a  while  and  lots  of  cattle  and  a  few 
cowboys  riding  ponies  with  high  Mexican  saddles.  There 
are  hardly  any  trees,  just  a  few  cottonwood  poplars  along 
the  banks  of  streams." 

He  passes  around  some  pictures  of  the  ranch  country 
and  answers  questions  about  them.  Then  he  announces 
the  arrival  in  Denver  and  shows  pictures  and  pamphlets 
describing  the  city.  He  tells  about  trips  to  Colorado 
Springs,  Cripple  Creek,  Pueblo,  and  Grand  Junction, 
visits  a  gold  mine  and  a  smelter,  climbs  Pikes  Peak,  and 
explains  the  irrigation  systems.  He  shows  pictures  of  the 
canyons  and  the  snow-covered  peaks  and  of  camping 
parties  with  saddle  and  pack-ponies.  The  pupils  have 
many  questions  to  ask  and  information  to  give,  which  they 
have  learned  from  parents  or  other  relatives.  The  dis- 
cussion is  adjourned  until  the  next  day  and,  in  the  mean- 
time, the  pictures  and  reading  matter,  a  riding  quirt,  a 


THE   COMMON   RECITATION  143 

sugar  beet,  and  a  lump  of  gold  ore  are  put  on  a  table  where 
pupils  can  examine  them  at  their  leisure. 

Miss  D.  contrasts  the  two  recitations.  One  of  them 
seems  artificial  and  barren,  the  other  natural  and  full  of 
life.  As  she  thinks  over  what  she  has  observed  she  is 
impressed  with  the  difference  in  state  of  mind  of  the  two 
sets  of  pupils.  In  one  case  all  were  attending  chiefly  to  the 
words  of  the  textbook.  All  knew  the  material  or  had  read 
it  at  least.  They  were  merely  quizzing  each  other  on  a 
formal  lesson.  In  the  other  case,  the  leader  had  a  lot  of 
fresh  material  to  contribute,  —  more  than  he  had  time  to 
give.  He  knew  his  subject  and  was  eager  to  tell  about  it. 
The  other  pupils  wanted  to  know.  Naturally  they  asked 
questions.  They  couldn't  help  it.  The  leader  wasn't 
trying  to  remember  the  answer  to  a  question.  He  was 
trying  to  make  a  point  clear.  It  was  a  genuine  socialized 
recitation  because  it  was  a  true  social  situation.  In  the 
first  case,  the  pupils  used  stereotyped  expressions  and  be- 
haved according  to  rule  because  there  was  nothing  else  for 
them  to  do.  They  had  nothing  in  their  minds  but  the  words 
of  the  book  and  there  was  nothing  to  stimulate  them  to 
spontaneous  behavior.  They  had  either  to  keep  still  or 
act  like  parrots. 

Miss  D.  concludes  that  in  order  to  have  a  socialized 
recitation,  there  must  be  subject  matter  which  naturally 
calls  for  give  and  take  between  the  pupils,  something  to  be 
told  or  something  to  be  learned  which  some  of  the  class 
know  and  the  others  want  to  find  out,  or  something  involv- 
ing real  difference  of  opinion  which  naturally  leads  to  argu- 
ment. "In  other  words,"  she  says,  "a  good  socialized 
recitation  is  not  a  recitation  at  all.  It  is  a  conversation." 


144  PROBLEMS   OF  METHOD 

PROBLEM  104.  —  A  high  school  teacher  uses  the  common  recita- 
tion method,  assigning  a  lesson  for  outside  study,  and  calling 
upon  pupils  to  recite  at  the  next  recitation.  The  teacher  asks 
innumerable  questions,  sometimes  changing  the  question  three 
or  four  times  before  permitting  a  pupil  to  answer.  Replies  are 
usually  meagre  and  poorly  expressed.  The  teacher  works  hard 
but  the  pupils  put  forth  little  independent  effort.  Exami- 
nations induce  vigorous  "  cramming,"  but  tests  given  a  few 
months  after  the  completion  of  the  course  show  that  little  has 
been  retained. 

The  teacher  discusses  the  problem  with  the  superintend- 
ent and  is  advised  by  the  latter  to  read  a  book  on  methods 
of  teaching.  This  book  describes  very  clearly  the  common 
type  of  recitation  which  the  teacher  recognizes  as  his  own. 
The  author  maintains  that  the  indifference  and  poor  re- 
sponse of  the  students  are  the  natural  results  of  the  method 
employed.  The  teacher  is  taking  all  the  responsibility. 
He  alone  knows  what  is  to  come  next.  For  the  pupils 
the  course  is  simply  a  series  of  tasks  upon  which  they  will 
be  quizzed.  They  have  no  purpose  except  to  pass  in  the 
course  and,  in  the  case  of  a  few,  to  get  high  marks.  They 
are  not  eager  to  find  out  anything  or  to  accomplish  any- 
thing. The  teacher  is  constantly  trying  to  find  out  what 
they  don't  know  and  the  only  fun  for  them  is  to  beat  him 
at  this  game.  The  author  says  that  the  pupils  ought  to  be 
taken  into  counsel  in  planning  the  course  and  assigning  the 
work.  There  should  be  cooperation  between  teacher  and 
pupils.  The  latter  should  be  given  more  responsibility. 
The  teacher  should  be  guide  and  inspirer  rather  than  slave- 
driver. 

The  teacher  is  inclined  to  think  that  this  is  a  pretty 
theory  of  one  who  has  no  practical  knowledge  of  high  school 
boys  and  girls.  However,  it  interests  him.  It  would  be 


THE   COMMON   RECITATION  145 

fine  if  it  could  be  done.  He  thinks  about  it  a  good  deal 
and  it  influences  his  attitude  toward  his  pupils,  without 
his  being  fully  conscious  of  the  change.  He  begins  to 
depend  somewhat  upon  pupils  to  ask  questions  about 
points  which  they  do  not  understand  and  uses  more  of  the 
recitation  period  in  discussing  such  points  and  developing 
new  work,  instead  of  quizzing  the  class  upon  every  item  of 
the  lesson.  Gradually  the  pupils  come  to  see  that,  if  they 
are  to  meet  the  tests  satisfactorily,  they  must  take  respon- 
sibility for  mastering  the  work  as  they  go  along,  and,  if 
they  fail  to  ask  for  help  where  they  need  it,  it  is  their  own 
loss,  not  the  teacher's.  Toward  the  end  of  the  term,  he 
asks  one  day,  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  "How  much  can 
we  take  for  next  time?"  and  is  surprised  that  the  class  is 
ready  to  take  more  than  the  usual  assignment.  One  of  the 
pupils  says :  "Let's  finish  the  work  as  soon  as  we  can  so  as 
to  have  some  time  for  review."  As  the  teacher  refrains 
more  and  more  from  immediate  answers  to  pupils'  questions, 
discussion  develops  and  pupil  participation  becomes  more 
free  and  spontaneous. 

By  the  end  of  the  term,  the  teacher  has  become  thoroughly 
interested  in  the  idea  of  cooperation  between  teacher  and 
pupils  and,  on  beginning  work  with  new  classes,  he  follows 
a  more  definite  plan.  On  the  opening  day,  he  discusses 
with  each  class  the  scope  of  the  course  and  suggests  that, 
before  the  next  lesson,  the  pupils  look  over  the  textbooks 
so  as  to  get  an  idea  of  the  work  to  be  done.  Then  he  gets 
one  of  the  classes  into  a  discussion  on  the  way  to  organize 
the  recitation  periods  so  as  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  time. 
In  his  manner  of  speaking  he  makes  himself  one  of  the  group 
about  to  undertake  an  interesting  enterprise.  It  is  agreed 

E.    T.    PROB. 10 


146  PROBLEMS   OF  METHOD 

to  organize  as  a  study  club.  A  chairman  is  appointed  to 
preside  at  the  class  meetings  and  a  program  committee 
is  appointed  with  the  teacher  as  one  of  the  members,  to 
assign  topics  for  study  and  discussion. 

As  the  work  progresses,  the  pupils  themselves  call  for 
tests  to  see  how  well  they  have  mastered  the  topics  studied. 
The  teacher  finds  himself  commending  the  class  frequently. 
A  few  pupils  need  prodding  but  there  is  very  little  of  the 
indifference  and  passive  resistance  which  formerly  exas- 
perated him. 

PROBLEM  105.  —  A  seventh-grade  teacher  finds  her  class  to  be 
very  slow  and  inaccurate  in  the  fundamental  processes  of  arith- 
metic. She  gives  a  great  deal  of  practice,  marks  papers  reli- 
giously, keeps  pupils  after  school,  and  still  finds  that  very  little 
progress  is  made.  She  sets  herself  the  task  of  devising  a  more 
effective  method. 

The  teacher  thinks  about  her  problem  and  discusses  it 
with  other  teachers.  She  tries  a  few  devices  recommended 
by  the  others  but  sees  no  appreciable  improvement.  Her 
own  efforts  are  not  having  the  desired  effect  and  the  pupils 
themselves,  although  they  seem  to  be  trying,  have  no 
enthusiasm.  The  constant  criticism  and  poor  marks  are 
apparently  bringing  about  a  hopeless  indifference.  She 
must  find  some  way  to  get  the  pupils  interested  in  the 
problem. 

Finally,  at  the  suggestion  of  a  friend,  she  writes  to  the 
teacher  of  methods  in  the  normal  school  from  which  she 
graduated.  He  advises  her  to  begin  by  giving  some  of  the 
standard  tests  in  the  fundamental  processes.  He  explains 
that  these  tests  have  been  given  to  hundreds  of  classes  and 
the  results  published.  The  children  will  probably  be 


THE    COMMON   RECITATION  147 

interested  to  see  how  they  stand  in  comparison  with  other 
seventh  grades  and  how  much  progress  they  can  make  by 
the  end  of  the  term.  The  results  of  the  tests  will  also  show 
her  more  definitely  where  the  weak  spots  lie. 

The  teacher  explains  the  tests  to  the  class.  The  pupils 
are  interested  at  once  and  exert  themselves  to  make  a  good 
showing.  The  results  are  surprising  in  several  ways. 
Although  the  average  scores  are  below  the  standard  in  all 
the  processes,  they  are  not  very  much  below  it  except  in 
addition,  while  in  division  the  class  average  is  almost 
exactly  the  same  as  the  standard.  The  most  striking  thing 
about  the  results  is  the  wide  variation  in  the  scores  of  indi- 
vidual pupils.  One  pupil  did  more  than  twice  as  many 
examples  as  the  class  average,  without  making  a  mistake, 
while  a  few  got  hardly  one  right  answer  although  they  did 
less  than  the  average  number  of  examples.  In  general, 
those  who  worked  most  quickly  were  most  accurate  and 
those  who  did  well  in  one  process  did  well  in  the  others. 

It  is  easy  to  interest  the  class  in  working  to  raise  the  class 
score  above  the  standard.  The  teacher  notices  much  better 
effort  during  the  term  and  considerable  improvement  in  the 
regular  work  in  arithmetic.  At  the  end  of  the  term  both 
teacher  and  class  are  eager  to  find  out  how  much  has  been 
gained. 

It  is  found  that  the  class  averages  have  improved  in  all 
four  processes  but  the  gain  is  greatest  in  division  and  least 
in  addition.  The  score  in  the  latter  is  still  below  the 
standard.  The  variation  in  individual  scores  is  even  greater 
than  before.  Some  have  made  remarkable  gains,  some  have 
apparently  stood  still,  and  a  few  have  lower  scores  than  in 
the  original  test. 


148  PROBLEMS   OF   METHOD 

The  teacher  concludes  that  the  chief  value  of  the  tests 
has  been  to  make  the  problem  more  definite  and  to  arouse 
the  interest  of  the  pupils.  On  the  whole,  the  improvement 
has  come  where  apparently  it  was  least  needed.  The  weak 
spots  have  not  been  overcome  and  some  time  has  been  used 
in  individual  cases  in  acquiring  a  quite  unnecessary  degree 
of  skill.  It  might  better  have  been  devoted  to  something 
more  important.  The  problem  now  is  to  discover  the  causes 
of  individual  weaknesses  and  the  means  of  correcting  them. 

The  teacher  explains  these  conclusions  to  the  class  and 
proposes  that  they  make  their  chief  effort  during  the  new 
term  to  improve  the  work  where  the  tests  have  shown  the 
poorest  results.  As  a  class,  they  will  make  their  chief  attack 
upon  addition  and  as  individuals,  upon  their  particular 
weaknesses.  She  observes  the  work  of  individual  pupils 
closely  and  makes  several  discoveries.  The  first  day  she 
keeps  her  eye  on  a  pupil  who  is  fairly  accurate  but  extremely 
slow.  She  notices  that  he  stops  frequently  in  adding  a 
column  of  figures  and  with  vacant  eyes  seems  to  be  going 
through  some  mental  process.  She  watches  him  more 
closely.  Suddenly  she  notices  that  his  fingers  are  moving. 
A  seventh-grade  boy  counting  on  his  fingers !  It  is  unbe- 
lievable but  a  study  of  other  members  of  the  class  reveals 
several  who  have  the  same  habit.  One  who  shows  the  same 
signs,  but  whose  fingers  are  still,  is  finally  detected  in 
making  movements  of  his  foot  as  he  counts,  and  later  a 
girl  confesses  that  she  has  for  years  got  the  result  of  a 
combination,  which  did  not  immediately  come  to  mind, 
by  touching  her  teeth  with  the  tip  of  her  tongue  as  she 
counted. 

Here  was  a  definite  interfering  habit  to  be  broken  up. 


THE   COMMON   RECITATION  149 

These  pupils  must  master  the  number  combinations  so  that 
the  responses  will  be  automatic.  The  teacher  sets  them  to 
work  on  tables  and  devises  games  in  which  an  immediate 
answer  to  a  number  combination  is  necessary  to  success. 
After  a  few  days'  work  of  this  sort,  these  pupils  begin  to  gain 
speed.  Another  pupil  is  found  to  be  very  slow  in  writing 
numbers.  He  is  helped  by  copying  figures,  timing  himself, 
and  trying  to  beat  his  record.  Many  prove  to  be  able  to 
add  very  short  columns  correctly,  but  make  mistakes  when 
the  number  of  addends  is  increased  beyond  a  certain  point. 
They  are  denied,  for  a  time,  examples  which  are  beyond 
their  power  and  are  encouraged  to  work  at  the  limit  of  their 
ability,  gradually  increasing  the  length  of  the  columns  as 
they  succeed  in  adding  the  shorter  ones  without  mistake. 
With  some,  the  errors  are  almost  always  made  in  "  carry- 
ing" from  one  column  to  the  next.  Special  drill  on  this 
step  gives  them  prompt  improvement  in  accuracy.  A  few 
are  victims  of  nervous  excitement,  calculating  rapidly  and 
accurately  part  way  through  an  example  and  then  "going 
to  pieces."  This  is  reported  to  the  normal  school  teacher, 
who  in  turn  reports  it  to  a  psychologist.  At  the  suggestion 
of  the  latter,  these  pupils  are  advised  to  rest  for  an  instant 
once  or  twice  in  the  course  of  the  example.  The  effect 
is  immediate. 

The  success  of  pupils,  who  had  for  years  been  considered 
hopelessly  inaccurate  in  arithmetic,  naturally  raises  their 
spirits.  A  keen  interest  in  individual  progress  is  aroused. 
At  the  end  of  the  term,  the  class  score  in  addition  is  above 
the  standard  and  nearly  all  the  pupils  have  made  progress 
in  the  processes  in  which  they  were  especially  weak. 

The  teacher  realizes  that  she  has  not  fully  solved  the 


150  PROBLEMS   OF   METHOD 

problem.  Indeed  one  of  the  most  prominent  ideas  which 
she  has  gained  in  the  course  of  her  study  is  the  complicated 
nature  of  the  mental  processes  involved  in  arithmetical 
computations.  Nevertheless,  she  knows  that  she  has  made 
progress  and  has  confidence  that  the  causes  of  pupils' 
difficulties  can  be  discovered.  She  intends  to  continue  on 
the  same  line,  asking  the  help  of  experts  in  cases  which 
baffle  her  own  efforts. 

PROBLEM  106.  —  A  teacher  of  English  takes  up  with  her  class 
Scott's  "  Lady  of  the  Lake."  Her  regular  method  is  to  call  upon 
a  pupil  to  read  a  short  passage,  after  which  errors  are  corrected, 
allusions  and  figures  of  speech  explained,  and  grammatical 
questions  are  asked.  She  introduces  a  brief  study  of  versifi- 
cation. Occasionally  compositions  are  required  on  the  subject 
matter  of  the  poem.  Very  few  of  the  pupils  show  much  in- 
terest and  some  declare  that  they  hate  poetry.  At  a  meeting 
of  teachers,  someone  makes  the  statement  that  if  first-year 
high  school  pupils  do  not  enjoy  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  some- 
thing is  wrong  with  the  teaching. 

After  the  meeting,  our  teacher  "button-holes"  the  man 
who  made  the  remark  with  the  intention  of  making  him  eat 
his  words.  She  says:  "I  don't  agree  with  what  you  said. 
I  think  mere  enjoyment  is  not  a  sufficient  motive  for  teach- 
ing literature.  If  we  are  simply  to  give  the  students  a 
good  time  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  give  them  '  Spicy  Stories ' 
or  the  '  Neapolitan  Magazine '  or  the  most  absurd  detec- 
tive stories.  I  believe  our  job  is  to  counteract  all  this 
trashy,  impossible  fiction  by  making  them  acquainted  with 
things  that  are  uplifting." 

"So  do  I,"  says  the  other.  "I  believe  that  the  'Lady  of 
the  Lake '  is  good  material  for  the  first  year  of  high  school 
but  it  is  of  no  use  to  teach  it  unless  it  interests  the  pupils. 


A   METHOD   IN   LITERATURE  151 

If  they  are  indifferent  to  it  or  bored  by  it,  our  time  is  wasted. 
My  point  is  that  it  must  be  taught  in  such  a  way  that  pupils 
will  enjoy  it." 

"Don't  you  think,"  says  our  teacher,  "that  everyone 
ought  to  know  the  masterpieces  of  English  literature?" 

"That  all  depends,  I  think,  upon  the  effect  of  the  knowl- 
edge. Merely  knowing  that  Scott  wrote  the  '  Lady  of  the 
Lake '  and  knowing  that  one  has  studied  it  do  not  seem  to 
me  sufficient  reasons  for  spending  much  time  on  the  book. 
That  is  a  good  deal  like  pride  of  family  —  a  sense  of  superi- 
ority because  one  is  related  to  a  famous  person,  without 
being  any  better  in  conduct  because  of  the  relationship. 
That  kind  of  literary  study  produces  intellectual  snobbish- 
ness. To  be  of  any  great  value,  a  knowledge  of  the  master- 
pieces must  have  some  real  effect  upon  a  person,  make  him 
finer  in  some  way,  make  him  behave  differently  than  if  he 
did  not  possess  it." 

"But  I  don't  see  any  better  way  to  present  the  poem  to 
the  pupils,"  our  teacher  goes  on,  "than  to  teach  them  what 
I  know  about  it.  I  get  keen  pleasure  in  reading  poetry 
and  I  am  sure  that  I  get  an  intellectual,  even  a  moral  inspira- 
tion from  it.  Part  of  my  enjoyment  comes  from  ability 
to  recognize  the  allusions,  knowledge  of  the  forms  of  verse, 
acquaintance  with  the  life  of  the  author,  and  even  my  back- 
ground of  linguistic  and  grammatical  knowledge.  I  have 
tried  to  give  the  pupils  knowledge  of  this  sort  as  it  applies 
to  the  '  Lady  of  the  Lake '  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  appre- 
ciate it,  but  they  don't  seem  to  care  for  anything  that  takes 
real  study  and  thought." 

"I  know  just  how  you  feel,"  the  other  replies.  "I  have 
had  the  same  experience,  but  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion 


152  PROBLEMS   OF  METHOD 

that  it  is  a  mistake  to  assume  that  children  ought  to  like 
what  we  like  and  for  reasons  which  appeal  to  us.  In  the 
first  place,  we  probably  have  more  taste  for  literature  than 
the  average  person,  otherwise  we  would  not  be  teaching 
English.  Furthermore,  we  have  mature  minds  and  a 
background  of  literary  knowledge  which  can  be  acquired 
only  by  years  of  study.  If  we  simply  emphasize  the  tilings 
which  appeal  to  us,  or  if  we  try  to  get  pupils  to  understand 
the  poem  as  we  do,  we  shall  shoot  over  their  heads  and 
probably  give  them  a  distaste  for  the  poem  which  we  want 
them  to  appreciate." 

By  this  time,  our  teacher  is  beginning  to  think  that  this 
man  may  not  be  so  far  off  the  track  as  she  thought.  She 
asks,  "Well,  how  would  you  teach  it?" 

"My  plan,"  he  answers,  "is  to  formulate  carefully  the 
purposes  which  I  want  to  accomplish  and  then  try  to  find 
a  method  of  presentation  which  will  produce  the  desired 
result.  If  one  method  doesn't  work  I  try  another." 

At  this  point  the  speaker  is  interrupted  and  carried  off 
by  the  chairman  of  the  meeting,  and  our  teacher  has  no 
opportunity  to  resume  the  conversation.  Nevertheless, 
she  has  caught  his  idea  and  proceeds  to  think  it  out. 
"What  do  I  want  to  accomplish  in  teaching  the  '  Lady  of  the 
Lake'?  "  she  asks  herself.  She  ponders  this  question  and 
jots  down  the  thoughts  which  occur  to  her.  Afterward 
she  arranges  them  like  this : 


MY  PURPOSES  IN  TEACHING  THE  "LADY  or  THE  LAKE" 

i.    To  stimuln!j  ideals  and  aspirations:    courage,  patriotism, 
unselfishness,  generosity,  pure  love. 


A   METHOD   IN   LITERATURE  153 

2.  To  give  an  appreciation  of  Scottish  character:   hardihood, 
clan  spirit,  love  of  country. 

3.  To  develop  an  appreciation  of  natural  beauty,  and  life  in 
the  open. 

4.  To  develop  enjoyment  of  good  poetry  and  a  desire  to  read 
more. 

5.  To  broaden  the  pupils'  vocabulary  and  ideas. 

The  teacher  gives  much  thought  to  the  method  of  pro- 
ducing these  effects.  She  realizes,  in  the  light  of  her  recent 
discussion,  that  it  will  not  do  to  make  a  task  of  the  poem. 
She  must  present  it  so  that  it  will  produce  exhilaration. 
She  concludes  that  the  acquirement  of  new  words  and  ideas 
will  have  to  be  a  by-product,  rather  than  an  object  of  direct 
study. 

When  she  meets  her  new  class,  she  begins  by  saying  that 
they  are  about  to  read  a  poem  which  has  become  famous 
and  has  given  pleasure  to  thousands  of  people.  The  scene 
is  laid  in  Scotland  and  the  poem  was  written  by  a  man  who 
was  a  great  lover  of  his  country.  She  tells  very  briefly 
about  Scott's  life  and  shows  his  picture.  Then  she  shows 
photographs  of  the  Scottish  Highlands  and  makes  such 
places  as  Ben  Lomond  and  Loch  Katrine  realities  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils.  She  tells  them  a  little  about  clan 
loyalty  and  the  strife  between  Highland  and  Lowland.  Fi- 
nally she  speaks  of  the  bards  and  explains  that  this  poem 
is  written  as  though  sung  by  one  of  these  bards.  Then 
she  begins  to  read  the  poem,  occasionally  giving  a  word  of 
explanation,  but  putting  all  her  effort  into  the  reading, 
watching  her  class  and  striving  to  make  them  respond  to 
the  rhythm  of  the  verse  and  the  pictures  of  wild  life  and 
action  of  the  characters  in  the  story. 

The  first  lesson  is  promising.     The  interest  and  enjoy- 


154  PROBLEMS   OF  METHOD 

ment  of  the  pupils  is  evident.  At  the  end  of  the  period, 
the  teacher  says :  "If  you  will  finish  reading  the  first  canto 
yourselves,  I  will  read  the  next  one  to  you  to-morrow." 
The  reading  proceeds  rapidly.  Many  of  the  pupils  read 
ahead.  There  are  occasional  questions  and  discussions 
started  on  the  initiative  of  students,  but  the  teacher  makes 
no  attempt  to  deal  with  details  of  language  or  allusion, 
except  when  questioned.  She  does  most  of  the  reading 
which  is  done  in  class,  but  occasionally  permits  a  pupil 
who  has  read  ahead  and  shown  unusual  appreciation  to  read 
for  a  time. 

In  a  few  days,  the  poem  has  been  completed.  Pupils 
are  enthusiastic.  They  discuss  the  characters  and  some 
have  voluntarily  learned  passages  which  especially  appealed 
to  them.  They  are  quite  ready  to  go  over  the  poem  again 
more  carefully,  in  order  to  understand  passages  which  were 
not  perfectly  clear. 

During  this  second  reading,  the  assignments  are  shorter. 
There  is  more  discussion  and  frequent  use  of  the  dictionary. 
Pupils  are  encouraged  to  prepare  passages  which  they  like 
best  to  read  to  the  class.  They  select  favorite  bits  for 
memorizing.  Finally  some  theme  writing  is  done,  but  the 
teacher  is  careful  to  allow  pupils  to  select  subjects  which 
really  interest  them  and  even  includes  in  a  list  of  suggested 
titles  some  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  "  Lady  of  the 
Lake."  Her  purpose  in  doing  this  is  to  avoid  the  possibility 
of  dulling  the  edge  of  a  pupil's  enjoyment  of  the  poem. 

When  the  work  is  finished  and  she  refers  to  her  statement 
of  purposes,  she  is  convinced  that  she  has  come  nearer  to 
accomplishment  of  what  she  set  out  to  do  than  she  has  ever 
done  before  —  with  this  book,  at  least.  The  oral  and 


THE   PROJECT  METHOD  155 

written  discussions  have  shown  that  many  of  the  pupils  have 
gained  real  inspiration  and  some  have  already  asked  for 
other  poems  "as  good  as  this  one."  A  few  have  written 
some  passable  verses  in  the  style  of  the  "  Lady  of  the  Lake." 
The  new  ideas  and  new  words  have  been  used  freely  in 
themes  and  discussions. 

PROBLEM  107.  —  At  a  teachers'  meeting,  the  principal  of  a 
school  says  to  the  teachers:  "  Everybody  seems  to  be  talking 
about  the  '  project  method.'  I  don't  know  much  about  it 
myself  but  I  think  we  ought  to  look  into  it  and  see  whether  it 
has  any  value  for  us.  I  wish  you  would  all  find  out  as  much 
as  you  can  about  the  method,  and  experiment  with  it  if  you 
please.  Then  we  can  discuss  it  at  a  later  meeting." 

At  the  close  of  the  meeting,  a  discussion  is  started  among 
several  of  the  teachers.  A  primary  teacher  says:  "As 
nearly  as  I  can  find  out,  the  project  method  is  letting  chil- 
dren do  as  they  please.  A  friend  of  mine  told  me  about  a 
first-grade  teacher  who,  she  says,  is  'dippy'  on  the  subject. 
She  has  what  she  calls  a  'free  period,'  when  the  children 
do  what  they  like.  They  build  with  blocks,  or  make  things 
with  paper  and  paste,  or  draw,  or  do  anything  else  that  they 
please.  They  simply  choose  what  they  want  to  do,  help 
themselves  to  material,  and  go  to  work  —  or  rather  play,  I 
should  call  it.  I  don't  believe  there  is  any  sense  in  that 
sort  of  thing  in  school.  There  is  time  enough  for  play  out 
of  school  hours.  If  children  are  to  do  what  they  please, 
what  is  the  use  of  a  teacher?" 

Another  says:  "That's  not  project  method.  In  the 
Canlield  schools,  they  claim  to  be  basing  all  their  work  on 
projects.  One  class  studies  pottery,  another  the  silk 
industry,  another  paper-making,  etc.  Take  paper-making, 
for  example :  The  class  learn  how  paper  is  made  and 


156  PROBLEMS    OF   METHOD 

make  some  themselves,  instead  of  the  usual  work  in 
manual  training.  The  language  work  is  based  on  paper- 
making.  They  read  about  it  and  write  compositions 
on  the  subject,  and  do  arithmetic  problems  about  mak- 
ing and  selling  paper.  The  teachers  claim  that  the 
children  are  much  more  interested  in  their  work  than  when 
they  have  unrelated  lessons  in  reading,  language,  arith- 
metic, and  manual  training,  that  they  do  more  thinking, 
talk  and  write  more  freely." 

"I  don't  see  how  they  can  cover  the  ground  in  the  regular 
subjects  that  everyone  ought  to  know,"  interposes  one  of 
the  teachers.  "Neither  do  I,"  answers  the  previous  speaker, 
"but  they  claim  that  they  do." 

Another  says  :  "I  know  a  case  in  which  the  whole  school 
worked  on  the  same  project.  They  wanted  to  send  some 
dolls  to  children  in  the  European  countries  which  were 
devastated  by  the  war.  The  special  class  made  wooden 
dolls  and  each  class  had  one.  They  made  complete  outfits 
of  clothing  and  little  trunks  to  pack  them  in.  The  parents 
became  interested  and  contributed  material,  and  the 
janitor  made  dolls'  furniture  for  the  lowest  classes,  where 
the  children  could  not  do  it  themselves.  One  of  the  teachers 
told  me  that  the  children  worked  like  beavers  and  did  better 
sewing  than  anyone  would  have  thought  possible.  They 
wouldn't  tolerate  poor  work  but  insisted  on  ripping  out  big 
stitches  and  doing  the  work  over  until  it  satisfied  the  class. 
She  said  the  project  did  more  than  anything  that  had  ever 
happened  before  to  develop  a  sense  of  unity  and  pride  in  the 
school." 

One  of  the  group  says  :  "I  thought  that  'project  method' 
was  just  a  new  name  for  the  socialized  recitation.  The 


THE    PROJECT    METHOD  157 

purpose  seems  to  be  to  have  the  children  more  active,  to 
have  them  take  the  lead  rather  than  follow  directions,  and 
to  think  and  talk  more  for  themselves." 

"The  project  method  reminds  me  of  the  elephant  and  the 
four  blind  men,"  laughs  Miss  P.,  who  has  been  merely  listen- 
ing. "What  it  is  depends  upon  the  direction  from  which 
you  approach  it.  I'm  completely  muddled."  That  eve- 
ning she  goes  to  the  library  and  takes  home  a  book  on  the 
project  method.  For  the  next  few  days,  during  her  spare 
time,  she  reads  and  thinks,  attempting  to  apply  the  author's 
conception  of  project  teaching  to  the  illustrations  given 
at  the  recent  discussion.  Finally  she  exclaims:  "Eureka! 
The  wall,  the  tree,  the  snake,  and  the  rope  are  all  merged 
in  the  elephant.  The  essential  idea  in  the  project  method 
is  purpose.  We  learn  most  rapidly  and  most  effectively  when 
we  are  trying  to  carry  out  a  purpose  which  we  earnestly 
wish  to  accomplish,  and,  as  the  author  says,  one  of  the 
most  valuable  habits  which  one  can  acquire  is  that  of  trans- 
lating desire  into  purpose  and  'seeing  it  through.'  The 
project  method,  as  I  see  it  now,  changes  the  whole  scheme 
of  education.  Instead  of  a  process  of  pouring  in  or  molding, 
education  consists  of  guiding  the  child  in  accomplishing  his 
purposes.  We  must  help  him  to  get  hold  of  valuable 
purposes  and  show  him  how  to  work  them  out  in  the  most 
economical  ways.  That  is  our  job  ;  but  we  must  be  sure 
to  give  him  a  chance  to  work  under  the  stimulus  of  his  own 
purpose. 

All  of  those  ideas  of  project  teaching  which  the  other 
teachers  spoke  of  the  other  day  fit  into  this  conception. 
The  free  period  is  an  obvious  method  of  giving  children  a 
chance  to  form  a  purpose  and  carry  it  out.  There  are 


158  PROBLEMS   OF   METHOD 

doubtless  practical  difficulties  in  making  the  free  period 
valuable,  but  the  idea  is  consistent  with  the  aim  of  project 
teaching.  The  paper-making  is  a  cooperative  project. 
If  the  children  really  become  sufficiently  interested  in  it 
to  acquire  a  real  purpose  to  work  it  out,  it  accords  with  the 
new  plan  of  education.  The  doll-project  is  cooperation 
involving  more  people.  The  testimony  indicates  that  it 
produced  in  the  children  the  right  mental  attitude.  The 
socialized  recitation,  if  it  involves  genuine  purpose  and 
activity  on  the  part  of  the  children,  is  one  type  of  project 
work." 

A  week  or  two  later,  the  principal  calls  for  teachers' 
ideas  on  the  project  method  and  Miss  P.  explains  her  view 
and  how  she  acquired  it.  "I  can't  see  anything  new  in  the 
scheme  except  the  name,"  says  one.  "We  have  always 
done  such  things  as  you  mention.  I  remember  that  nearly 
twenty  years  ago  we  used  to  make  butter  in  the  fourth  grade. 
What  is  the  sand  table  work  which  we  have  been  doing 
for  years  but  projects?" 

"It  isn't  altogether  new,"  Miss  P.  replies.  "I  suppose 
there  have  always  been  teachers  who  have  succeeded  in 
having  their  children  work  with  a  purpose,  but  I  doubt  if 
many  of  them  knew  what  they  were  doing.  They  didn't 
use  a  thought-out  method  and  much  of  the  time  they  simply 
heard  lessons.  Besides,  they  were  rare  teachers.  I  believe 
it  is  a  new  idea  to  most  of  us.  At  any  rate,  now  that  I 
understand  it,  I  think  I  can  use  the  method  consistently 
and  deliberately,  rather  than  once  in  a  while  by  accident." 

"I  can't  see  why  you  call  it  a  method,"  objects  another. 
"It  seems  to  me  that  you  are  proposing  to  change  the 
subject  matter,  abandoning  the  traditional  outline  of  facts 


THE   PROJECT   METHOD  159 

and  processes,  or  at  least  changing  the  order  in  which  they 
are  taught,  and  substituting  larger  units  of  thought  in  which 
the  various  items  of  knowledge  come  in  as  they  are  needed." 

l< That  isn't  the  way  I  look  at  it,"  says  Miss  P.  "I  don't 
believe  it  is  chiefly  a  question  of  subject  matter.  Of  course 
we  must  have  projects  which  appeal  to  the  children,  but 
the  fundamental  idea  is  purpose.  The  subject  matter  is 
chosen  in  accordance  with  that  principle.  To  me,  it  is  a 
method  of  education  by  which  we  stimulate  purposing  and 
develop  ability  to  carry  out  purposes.  It  involves,  for  the 
teacher,  keeping  in  the  background  when  her  direction 
would  interfere  with  the  pupils'  effort,  and  giving  help  and 
advice  when  this  will  help  the  pupils  to  gain  power.  The 
mastery  of  subject  matter  is  not  the  important  thing  for 
the  teacher,  although  it  may  be,  at  times,  for  the  child. 
You  spoke  of  abandoning  the  traditional  material.  I  don't 
believe  that  is  an  essential  feature  of  the  method.  In  so  far 
as  the  acquirement  of  this  material  is  necessary,  the  acquire- 
ment may  become  a  project  in  itself.  If  the  pupil  sees 
the  need  of  it  and  purposes  to  master  subject  matter  or  a 
new  process,  it  becomes  a  project  for  him.  Learning  the 
multiplication  table  or  preparing  for  college  entrance  exam- 
inations may  be  real  projects,  if  the  pupil  undertakes  to 
accomplish  these  things  instead  of  working  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  teacher  who  has  determined  that  he  shall  accom- 
plish them.  We  teachers  have  been  monopolizing  purposes. 
We  have  got  to  share  them  with  the  pupils." 

After  this  meeting  several  of  the  teachers  try  to  make  use 
of  the  project  method.  A  month  later  experiences  are 
reported  and  discussed  at  the  teachers'  meeting.  One 
says:  "My  chief  difficulty  is  to  tell  how  far  the  teacher 


l6o  PROBLEMS    OF   METHOD 

ought  to  go  in  starting  a  project.  Ideally,  I  suppose,  the 
projects  ought  to  come  from  the  children  —  they  want  to 
do  something  and  we  guide  them  as  they  carry  out  their 
plans  so  that  they  may  learn  as  much  as  possible  —  but 
practically  I  find  that  comparatively  few  have  projects 
to  suggest.  Is  it  any  better  to  have  a  class  work  on  a 
project  initiated  by  one  of  their  number  than  on  one  which 
is  intrinsically  more  valuable,  proposed  by  the  teacher?" 
Before  anyone  can  answer,  someone  remarks:  "If  you 
wait  for  the  children  to  decide  what  they  want  to  do  some 
of  them  will  never  do  a  thing  except  copy  someone 
else." 

Then  Miss  P.  says:  "I  think  we  can  answer  such  ques- 
tions of  procedure  if  we  keep  in  mind  our  general  purpose 
of  education  and  the  special  aim  set  up  in  the  project 
method.  We  want  all  the  children  to  make  the  best 
possible  growth  and,  to  further  this,  we  want  everyone,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  to  work  with  a  purpose  of  his  own.  It 
does  not  matter  where  he  gets  his  purpose,  if  he  really  has 
it  and  if  it  is  one  that  will  mean  growth  for  him.  It  would 
be  absurd,  I  think,  to  sit  still  and  wait  for  the  spirit  to  move 
a  child  before  we  did  anything.  How  did  we  ourselves  get 
hold  of  the  purposes  which  have  proved  to  be  of  greatest 
value  to  us?  If  we  attempt  to  analyze  them,  I  imagine 
that  we  shall  find  that  in  a  good  many  cases  they  resulted 
from  suggestions  made  by  others,  sometimes  from  direct 
advice.  Sometimes  we  began  to  do  what  somebody  else 
was  doing  and  presently  became  intensely  interested.  Even 
in  cases  where  the  fully  formed  purpose  was  the  result  of 
deliberation,  most  of  the  ideas  involved  in  it  probably 
came  from  others.  In  the  case  of  a  cooperative  enterprise 


THE    PROJECT    METHOD  l6l 

it  is  obviously  impossible  that  all  the  participants  should 
have  initiated  the  plan. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  thing  that  the  teacher  can 
do  is  to  get  children  interested  in  doing  worth  while  things. 
She  should,  I  think,  take  advantage  of  desires  expressed 
by  the  children,  offering  suggestions  for  making  them  more 
valuable  or  more  practicable,  but  she  should  often  make 
the  first  suggestions  herself.  I  find  that  such  a  suggestion 
followed  by  discussion  usually  results  in  a  plan  which  the 
children  consider  their  own.  The  only  danger,  as  far  as  I 
can  see,  is  the  possibility  of  forcing  on  the  children  some- 
thing which  does  not,  in  fact,  produce  a  genuine  purpose. 
When  this  happens  the  teacher  should  promptly  drop  the 
plan  and  find  a  better  one." 

A  teacher  says:  "I  can't  seem  to  prevent  a  few  of  the 
children  from  doing  all  the  thinking  and  most  of  the  talk- 
ing." Several  suggestions  are  offered  for  meeting  this 
difficulty.  The  proposal  to  deny  such  pupils  opportunity 
to  speak  or  to  give  them  minor  tasks  is  disapproved  because 
it  would  retard  their  own  growth.  The  best  suggestion 
is  to  make  individual  pupils  or  groups  of  pupils  especially 
responsible  for  definite  parts  of  the  project.  One  says : 
"  I  doubt  whether  we  can  prevent  certain  pupils  from  taking 
the  lead  or  whether  we  ought  to  try  to  do  so.  We  need 
leaders.  The  work  of  the  world  is  done  under  leadership, 
and,  while  we  ought  to  try  to  have  everyone  do  as  important 
a  part  as  he  can,  we  shall  have  to  expect  a  few  to  play  the 
principal  roles." 

"What  shall  we  do  with  the  pupils  who  shirk  or  who  are 
inert?  "  asks  a  teacher.  Miss  P.  answers  :  "I  have  thought 
about  that,  and  I  think  our  general  purpose  suggests  the 

E.    T.    PROK. —  II 


I 62  PROBLEMS    OF    METHOD 

answer.  I  can't  believe  that  a  child  will  get  his  best  growth 
through  idleness.  I  should  try  to  get  him  interested  in 
the  game,  but  if  I  failed,  I  should  make  him  work.  Until 
he  gets  a  purpose  of  his  own,  he  will  have  to  follow  mine. 
I  suspect  that  there  may  be  some  people  who  ought  always 
to  be  guided  by  another's  purpose,  but  we  ought  not  to 
assume  that  in  any  case  until  we  have  used  every  effort 
to  get  the  youngster  moving  under  his  own  steam." 

Someone  says:  "I  wonder  if  'project  method'  will  be 
like  'correlation,'  'motivation,'  and  'socialized  recitation'  - 
an  educational  fashion  of  a  year  or  two."  The  principal 
replies:  "I  have  no  doubt  that  it  will,  in  the  sense  that 
you  mean.  It  will  probably  be  talked  about  and  will 
monopolize  the  programs  at  educational  gatherings  and 
teachers  who  like  to  be  in  fashion  will  be  project  methodist 
fanatics  for  a  season  and  then  the  term  will  fall  into  disuse. 
However,  I  think  the  idea  will  persist.  The  underlying 
ideas  of  the  terms  which  you  mentioned  are  probably 
having  more  real  influence  upon  teaching  to-day  than  when 
the  names  were  in  everybody's  mouth.  Indeed,  they 
have  all  contributed  to  this  new  method.  I  believe  that. 
the  idea  underlying  the  project  method  is  a  real  discovery 
and  will  do  much  to  improve  teaching.  Perhaps  if  we  give 
our  attention  to  the  idea  and  use  the  name  sparingly,  we 
shall  be  less  inclined  to  abandon  it  when  the  next  panacea 
is  advertised." 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  METHOD 

i.  Method  should  be  adapted  to  purpose.  It  is  c?.sy  for  a 
teacher  to  fi::  attention  upon  method  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  lose  sight  of  the  purpose. 


PRINCIPLES   RELATING    TO   METHOD  163 

2.  That  method  is  best  which  accomplishes  the  purpose  with  a 
minimum  expenditure  of  time. 

3.  The  teacher  should  aim  to  develop  methods  by  which  all 
the  pupils  of  her  class  are  stimulated  to  do  their  best,  to 
work  in  response  to  their  own  motives,  and   to  do  their 
own  thinking. 

4.  Methods  should  be  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  children,  and 
as  far  as  possible  to  individual  peculiarities.     With  little 
children,  there  should  be  opportunity  for  much    physical 
activity.     In  all  grades  there  should  be  more  doing  and  less 
mere  listening  and  reciting  than  common  practice  permits. 

5.  A  teacher  must  guard  against  the  employment  of  the  super- 
ficial form  of  a  popular  method  without  having  studied  its 
full    significance   with   reference    to   purpose  and  to  child 
psychology. 

6.  One  should  examine  one's  methods  in  the  light  of  results. 
If  results  are  poor,  don't  blame  the  pupils,  but  try  to  find  out 
where  the  method  is  at  fault. 

7.  Repetition  is  essential  to  learning,  but  monotony  kills  inter- 

est.    Variation  is  necessary  to  keep  attention  at  a  maximum. 

8.  It  is  wasteful  to  attempt  to  teach  too  many  things  at  once. 
It  is  better  to  accept  crude  results  temporarily  than  to  try 
to  correct  everything  according  to  a  standard  which  is  be- 
yond the  pupils. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  108.  —  A  common  method  of  teaching  spelling  is  to 
assign,  say,  ten  words  from  the  spelling  book,  give  the  pupils  ten 
minutes  or  so  to  study  them,  and  then  dictate  the  words.  Pupils 
mark  each  other's  papers.  In  a  class  whose  teacher  uses  this 
method,  more  than  half  the  class  usually  write  perfect  papers. 
Some  have  four  or  five  mistakes.  In  a  test  at  the  end  of  the 
term,  very  few  get  a  hundred  per  cent,  one  gets  twenty-four 
per  cent  and  half  the  class  falls  below  eighty  per  cent.  In  written 
papers  in  composition  and  on  examination  papers  there  are  many 
mistakes. 

PROBLEM  109.  —  A  sixth-grade  teacher  usually  introduces  a 
new  lesson  in  history  or  geography  by  having  the  children  read 
the  new  material  aloud  from  the  textbook,  different  pupils 


1 64  PROBLEMS    OF   METHOD 

reading  one  paragraph  each  in  turn.  The  facts  are  not  grasped 
or  retained  very  well  and  pupils  show  no  power  to  apply  their 
knowledge  to  questions  which  do  not  call  for  direct  reproduction 
of  the  author's  statements. 

PROBLEM  110.  —  A  mathematics  teacher  uses  the  following 
method  regularly.  New  topics  are  explained,  problems  from  the 
textbook  are  assigned,  usually  in  the  order  given  in  the  book. 
At  the  next  lesson  the  same  problems  are  put  on  the  board,  each 
pupil  doing  one.  The  teacher  corrects  errors  and  pupils  are 
expected  to  compare  results  with  their  own  work.  Papers  are 
handed  in  and  marked  by  the  teacher.  Many  of  the  pupils 
continue  to  be  inaccurate.  Investigation  shows  that  some 
pupils  spend  15  minutes  on  an  assignment,  others  as  much  as 
two  hours.  The  teacher  occasionally  finds  papers  that  are 
identical,  although  having  many  mistakes. 

PROBLEM  111.  —  A  teacher  finds  that  there  is  a  great  variation 
in  ability  in  her  class  in  arithmetic.  Some  of  the  class  find  the 
work  very  easy.  Others  are  failing  and  making  little  progress 
in  spite  of  a  large  amount  of  drill.  The  teacher  feels  that  the 
work  is  not  meeting  the  needs  of  these  pupils,  but  does  not  see 
how  to  do  better  in  the  time  available. 

PROBLEM  112.  —  A  teacher  discovers  a  new  device  for  drill 
which  arouses  intense  interest.  Pupils  gain  surprisingly  for 
a  few  days,  but  gradually  lose  interest  and  seem  to  be  making 
no  progress. 

PROBLEM  113.  —  A  contest  arouses  keen  interest  but  the  pupils 
of  least  ability  fail  first  and  take  their  seats.  Those  who  need 
practice  least  get  the  most.  The  teacher  tries  to  devise  a  plan 
which  will  retain  the  interest  and  at  the  same  time  stimulate 
all  the  pupils. 

PROBLEM  114.  —  A  teacher  of  foreign  language  whose  whole 
training  and  experience  has  been  in  accordance  with  a  gram- 
matical approach  to  language  study  and  who  enjoys  grammatical 
analysis,  goes  to  work  in  a  school  whose  principal  favors  the 
"  direct  method."  She  thinks  the  new  method  slovenly,  a 
device  for  making  language  study  easy.  "  Pupils  trained  in  it 
know  nothing  definitely,"  she  says.  She  is  sure  she  is  right, 
and  yet  cannot  convince  the  principal. 


PROBLEMS   OF   METHOD  165 

PROBLEM  116.  —  A  prize  is  offered  to  the  pupil  who  gets  the 
highest  marks  for  the  term.  Some  pupils  show  great  interest 
in  their  marks  and  parents  complain  that  the  teacher  is  showing 
favoritism.  Most  of  the  pupils  are  indifferent  because  they 
know  they  cannot  hope  to  win. 

PROBLEM  116.  —  In  a  primary  grade,  the  teacher  has  hygienic 
practices  and  good  manners  dramatized.  A  parent  who  sees 
children  making  believe  to  brush  their  teeth  and  chewing  imag- 
inary oatmeal  thinks  it  a  silly  performance  —  mere  play. 

PROBLEM  117.  —  A  common  method  of  teaching  language 
(English)  is  to  have  pupils  learn  rules  and  definitions  of  language 
elements  —  such  as  punctuation,  grammatical  and  rhetorical 
principles  —  and  write  many  exercises  appyling  rules.  Pupils 
are,  of  course,  expected  to  apply  this  training  in  the  writing  of 
compositions.  Compositions  show  many  errors  arid  little  origi- 
nality. 

PROBLEM  118.  —  A  teacher  is  much  concerned  because  her 
pupils  make  so  many  errors  in  oral  language.  She  constantly 
corrects  them,  but  this  seems  to  have  little  effect.  Pupils  seem 
to  be  incurably  careless. 

PROBLEM  119.  —  A  teacher  of  drawing  uses  many  lessons  in 
which  pupils  draw  from  an  object  such  as  a  spray  of  flowers  or 
leaves.  Most  of  the  pupils  are  only  mildly  interested  and  some 
are  bored.  The  superintendent  wants  to  know  what  she  is  aimirg 
at  in  such  lessons.  She  replies  that  she  is  aiming  to  develop 
an  appreciation  of  the  beautiful.  He  expresses  doubt  as  to 
whether  this  is  an  economical  way  to  accomplish  the  purpose, 
and  asks  her  to  devise  a  method  which  will  develop  apprecia- 
tion more  directly  than  by  careful  copying  of  beautiful  objects. 

PROBLEM  120.  —  In  current  discussion  of  educational  methods, 
much  stress  is  laid  upon  the  pupil's  motive  in  doing  his  work. 
A  teacher  says :  "  That  sounds  well,  —  but  what  motive  has  a 
I  upil  for  studying  the  geography  of  South  America  —  he  must 
know  something  about  it,  and  he  might  as  well  get  to  work  and 
learn  it,  just  because  he  is  required  to  learn  it." 


I 66  PROBLEMS    OF    METHOD 

PROBLEM  121.  —  A  pupil  makes  a  mistake  in  giving  the  results 
of  a  combination  of  numbers,  for  example  7X9.  The  teacher 
says  with  a  question  mark  in  her  tone  "  7  times  9? "  The  pupil 
repeats  his  answer.  "  Try  again,"  she  says,  "  you  certainly 
know  that."  He  gives  another  wrong  answer.  "  Think," 
she  says,  "  7  times  9 !  "  After  one  or  two  more  attempts,  he 
hits  on  the  right  answer.  A  supervisor  who  is  observing  the 
lesson,  remarks  that  it  would  have  been  better  to  tell  the  child 
the  right  answer  at  once.  This  puzzles  the  teacher  because  she 
has  always  felt  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  tell  a  child  anything 
which  he  could  get  for  himself. 

PROBLEM  122.  —  A  certain  teacher  relies  to  a  great  extent  upon 
marks  as  an  incentive  to  effort.  Pupils  who  lose  the  place  are 
given  "zero."  Some  of  the  pupils  compete  very  vigorously  for 
high  marks  and  sometimes  complain  that  they  have  not  been 
marked  fairly.  The  poorest  students  seem  indifferent. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapters  III, 

V-VIII,  XIII,  XIV. 

La  Rue,  D.  W.,  Psychology  for  Teachers,  Chapters  IX-XII. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  Part  II. 
McMurry,  F.  M.,  How  to  Study. 
Earhart,  L.  B.,  Types  of  Teaching,  Chapters  IV-XV. 
Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  Chapter  XIV. 
Miller,  I.  E.,  Education  for  the  Needs  of  Life,  Chapter  V. 
Dewey,  J.,  Democracy  and  Education,  Chapters  XII,  XIII,  XV. 
King,  I.,  Education  for  Social  Efficiency,  Chapters  XIV,  XV. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  Chapters 

IV-XIL 
Stevens,  R.,  The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency  in  Instruction. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
PROBLEMS  DUE  TO  VARIATIONS  IN  PUPILS'  ABILITY 

LANGUAGE  HANDICAP  ;    GROUP  TEACHING  ; 
RAPID  PROMOTIONS 

PROBLEM  123.  —  In  a  certain  grade,  there  are  a  few  children  of 
foreign  birth  who  have  very  little  command  of  English.  They 
cannot  express  themselves  well,  and  have  great  difficulty  in 
getting  the  meaning  from  books  which  are  easily  understood 
by  the  other  children.  In  other  respects  they  are,  on  the  whole, 
up  to  grade.  One  or  two  of  them  are  far  ahead  of  the  class  in 
practical  arithmetical  ability. 

THE  teacher  has  been  patient  with  these  little  foreigners. 
She  realizes  that  they  are  handicapped  and  she  desires  sin- 
cerely to  do  as  much  as  possible  for  them,  but  her  efforts  are 
very  discouraging.  They  keep  making  the  same  awful  mis- 
takes in  speech,  no  matter  how  often  they  are  corrected. 
They  get  the  most  absurd  ideas  when  called  upon  to  study 
a  textbook.  In  oral  reading,  they  mispronounce  words 
constantly  and  show  that  they  do  not  understand  what 
they  are  reading  although  they  cheerfully  blunder  ahead. 
And  their  compositions!  "Impossible"  is  the  only  word 
for  them.  At  times,  she  is  convinced  that  they  are  "plain 
stupid,"  and  yet  occasionally  flashes  of  unexpected  intelli- 
gence prevent  her  from  abandoning  the  task  as  hopeless. 

She  shows  another  teacher  a  composition  written  by  one 
of  the  foreigners  and  they  have  a  good  laugh  over  it.  "Did 
you  ever  visit  Angelo's  home?"  asks  the  other.  "No." 

167 


1 68  VARIATIONS  IN  PUPILS'   ABILITY 

"Let's  go  together  and  call  on  the  family.  I  went  to  see 
them  last  year,  when  the  older  sister  was  in  my  class.  They 
are  very  interesting." 

The  visit  is  a  revelation  to  our  teacher.  She  finds  a 
family  of  twelve  and  three  boarders  besides,  in  a  little  house 
which  would  have  been  snug  quarters  for  three  or  four 
according  to  her  way  of  thinking.  The  mother  and  grand- 
mother do  not  understand  a  word  of  English  and  the  father 
has  very  little  advantage  of  them  in  this  respect.  Italian 
is  evidently  the  language  of  the  home  for  children  as  well 
as  adults.  The  cordial  welcome  touches  her  heart. 
Angelo's  teacher  is  a  guest  of  honor.  With  the  older  sister 
as  interpreter,  they  talk  about  the  children  and  about  school. 
She  starts  to  tell  about  the  boy's  difficulties  because  of  his 
poor  command  of  English,  but  soon  realizes  that  she  is  not 
making  herself  clear  and  is  glad  of  it  when  she  sees  how 
proud  the  family  is  of  Angelo  and  how  wonderful  it  is  to 
them  that  the  children  can  speak  the  foreign  tongue. 

Our  teacher  goes  home  with  a  greater  sympathy  and  a 
new  respect  for  her  foreign-born  pupils.  Instead  of  think- 
ing of  them  as  dullards,  she  finds  herself  wondering  how, 
amidst  such  surroundings,  they  have  made  so  much  prog- 
ress. This  new  point  of  view  affects  her  treatment  of 
the  children.  Unconsciously,  she  encourages  and  praise:-; 
where  before  she  had  often  shown  disappointment.  The 
children  respond  to  this  treatment  by  renewed  enthusiasm 
and  greater  efforts  to  please.  The  teacher  visits  other 
homes  and  a  real  understanding  and  affection  grows  up 
between  her  and  the  little  foreigners. 

The  English  problem  is  still  unsolved,  but  she  goes  to 
work  upon  it  with  determination.  She  feels  that  these  chil- 


LANGUAGE   HANDICAP  169 

dren,  some  of  whom  are  retarded  several  years  already  and 
will  probably  leave  school  at  fourteen,  ought  not  to  fail 
of  promotion  if  she  can  possibly  prevent  it.  To  avoid 
waste  of  time  for  the  class  by  having  the  other  pupils  listen 
to  the  stumbling  oral  reading  of  the  Italians,  she  takes  the 
latter  by  themselves  while  the  others  are  studying.  She  is 
soon  convinced  that  the  reading  matter  of  the  grade  is  too 
difficult  and  she  gets  easier  books  from  the  lower  grades. 
Gradually  this  leads  to  differentiation  within  the  small 
group.  Some  make  better  progress  than  others  and  are  given 
more  difficult  books.  The  teacher  and  pupils  become  in- 
terested in  the  individual  problems  of  the  several  members 
of  the  group  in  mastering  oral  reading. 

One  day,  without  premeditation,  she  asks  one  of  the  abler 
American  children  to  help  one  of  the  foreigners  in  a  lesson 
involving  study  from  a  textbook.  This  works  so  well  that 
she  adopts  it  as  a  regular  method. 

She  frequently  says  to  herself :  "If  I  only  had  more  tune 
for  the  foreign  group  !  If  I  had  them  alone,  I  could  put 
twice  as  much  time  on  English.  They  could  afford  to  give 
less  time  to  other  subjects.  English  is  the  important 
study  for  them."  The  difficulty  is  that  time  devoted  to 
special  work  with  the  foreign  group  must  be  taken  from  the 
rest  of  the  class.  "There  ought,"  she  thinks,  "to  be  a 
special  teacher  who  could  give  her  time  to  small  groups  of 
pupils  who  need  special  help."  She  makes  this  suggestion 
to  the  principal  who  agrees  that  it  is  a  good  idea  which  he 
will  support.  Until  it  can  be  brought  about,  he  adopts 
her  alternative  plan  of  giving  the  foreigners  double  time  in 
English  by  sending  them  into  the  lower  grade  during  its 
English  period. 


170  VARIATIONS   IN   PUPILS     ABILITY 

PROBLEM  124.  —  In  an  eighth  grade,  pupils  vary  in  age  from 
eleven  to  sixteen.  The  youngest  are  the  ablest  in  most  school 
work.  Tests  show  that  some  of  the  class  have  no  more  ability 
in  certain  subjects  than  the  average  sixth-grade  pupil. 

The  tests  convince  the  teacher  that  her  usual  method  of 
teaching  the  class  as  a  whole  is  very  poorly  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  pupils  at  the  two  extremes  of  the  class.  On  the 
one  hand,  the  abler  pupils  are  marking  time  as  they  go  over 
work  which  calls  for  no  effort.  They  are  missing  the  growth 
which  comes  through  attacking  real  difficulties.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  pupils  of  least  ability  are  forming  habits 
of  inaccuracy  and  superficiality.  They  are  skimming  over 
work  which  they  do  not  really  understand  and  constantly 
making  mistakes  in  problems  which  are  too  difficult  for 
them. 

''This  method,"  thinks  the  teacher,  "does  not  fit  our 
ideal  of  helping  all  children  to  make  the  most  of  themselves. 
It  is  calculated,  rather,  to  make  the  abler  ones  mediocre 
and  to  spoil  the  chance  of  the  slower  ones  for  fitting  them- 
selves to  do  well  what  they  are  capable  of  doing." 

She  goes  over  her  list  of  pupils  and,  using  the  results  of 
tests  and  other  knowledge  of  individual  abilities,  selects 
those  who  are  most  likely  to  suffer  from  mass  teaching. 
About  one  sixth  of  the  class  falls  in  each  of  the  two  groups 
at  the  upper  and  lower  extremes.  The  remaining  two 
thirds,  while  differing  considerably  in  ability  and  attain- 
ment, are  nearly  enough  alike  to  be  taught  as  a  group  with- 
out serious  loss.  Taking  first  the  ablest  group,  she  selects 
two  pupils  of  exceptional  ability  and  good  physical  develop- 
ment and  suggests  to  the  principal  that  they  be  promoted  at 
once  to  the  high  school.  "They  can  learn  nothing  in  this 


LANGUAGE   HANDICAP  1 71 

grade,"  she  says,  "and  I  am  sure  that  in  a  few  weeks  they 
will  be  leading  the  high  school  class." 

Several  of  the  others  she  designates  as  tentative  candi- 
dates for  a  double  promotion  at  the  end  of  the  term.  These 
pupils  are  excused  from  recitations  and  lesson  assignments 
which  would  involve  no  growth  for  them.  The  teacher 
takes  them  as  a  group  for  brief  lessons  in  Latin  and  allows 
them  to  work  by  themselves  much  of  the  time  on  this  sub- 
ject and  on  algebra.  As  all  of  these  pupils  have  good 
ability,  they  are  able  to  forge  ahead  with  their  books  as  a 
guide  and  with  occasional  help  and  encouragement  from  the 
teacher.  The  result  is  that  this  small  group  of  pupils 
loses  its  listlessness  and  becomes  energetic.  At  the  end  of 
the  term,  a  considerable  part  of  the  first  term's  work  in 
Latin  and  algebra  has  been  accomplished  and,  with  some 
study  during  the  summer,  most  of  the  pupils  are  successful 
in  gaining  a  double  promotion. 

To  a  few  of  the  abler  group  who  are  immature  or  physi- 
cally frail,  no  high  school  work  is  assigned.  They  spend 
the  time,  when  the  class  is  working  on  material  which  would 
not  be  of  value  to  them,  in  stimulating  reading  of  standard 
literature,  history,  science,  travel,  etc.  One  pupil  who  is  in 
poor  health  is  advised,  after  a  conference  with  the  principal 
and  the  mother,  to  come  to  school  only  in  the  morning  and 
to  spend  the  afternoon  out  of  doors. 

Taking  the  list  of  pupils  who  have  least  ability,  the 
teacher  finds  two  who  apparently  cannot  make  much  prog- 
gress  without  a  good  deal  of  individual  help.  She  arranges 
with  the  principal  to  have  them  spend  an  hour  each  day 
with  a  special  teacher  who  gives  a  part  of  her  time  in  aiding 
backward  pupils.  The  rest  she  teaches  as  a  group  in  work 


172  VARIATIONS   IN    PUPILS     ABILITY 

which  they  especially  need  and  which  they  cannot  have  with 
the  main  body  of  the  class.  She  varies  lesson  assignments 
so  that,  as  nearly  as  possible,  pupils  will  have  work  which 
calls  for  their  best  effort  but  which  is  not  beyond  their 
powers.  She  tries  to  develop  pride  in  doing  each  job  well 
and  in  making  progress  in  overcoming  individual  difficulties. 

Gradually,  in  the  formal  processes  such  as  spelling, 
writing,  arithmetical  operations,  and  in  silent  reading,  the 
whole  class  learns  to  work  individually  to  a  considerable 
extent,  each  one  trying  to  progress  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
The  work  is  divided  into  convenient  sections  and  any  pupil 
is  free  to  present  himself  for  a  test  on  a  section  whenever 
he  thinks  he  has  mastered  it. 

In  such  subjects  as  literature,  science,  and  civics,  in- 
volving discussion,  the  whole  class  meets  as  a  group.  Some 
contribute  much  more  than  others  and  there  is  considerable 
variation  in  lesson  assignments,  the  amount  of  individual 
reading  and  the  difficulty  of  special  topics  assigned  for 
study  being  adapted  to  the  abilities  of  the  individual 
pupils.  The  teacher  feels  that  in  such  subjects  as  these, 
pupils  gain  much  from  exchange  of  ideas  and  from  partici- 
pation in  a  social  group  even  if  they  differ  in  grasp  of  the 
subjects  discussed. 

PROBLEM  125.  —  In  a  first-year  high  school  class,  the  teacher 
finds  a  good  many  students  who  are  not  up  to  "  high  school 
standard."  They  fail  in  all  tests  and  recite  very  poorly,  never 
volunteering  to  speak.  On  the  other  hand,  he  is  very  much 
pleased  with  some  of  the  students.  He  points  to  their  high 
marks  in  his  tests  as  evidence  that  the  tests  were  fair.  He 
thinks  that  the  trouble  is  that  the  first-named  group  is  not  pre- 
pared for  high  school  work.  Some  of  them  are  not  "  lu'gh  school 
material  "  at  all.  These  students  soon  drop  out. 


GROUP    TEACHING  173 

The  teacher  takes  the  first  opportunity  to  express  his 
views  to  one  of  the  elementary  school  principals.  "What 
is  the  use,"  he  asks,  "of  sending  such  stuff  to  high  school? 
It  simply  wastes  their  time  and  ours.  They  can't  do  the 
work,  and  they  simply  clog  the  school  machine  until  they 
see  that  they  don't  belong  in  high  school.  Then  they  quit 
and  go  to  work.  It  seems  to  me  that  some  of  these  people 
ought  to  stay  in  the  elementary  school  for  at  least  a  year 
longer  and  some  of  them  ought  to  be  advised  to  go  to  \vork. 
Then  they  can  be  earning  a  living  instead  of  failing  in  the 
high  school." 

"Apparently  you  and  I  have  different  views  of  the  func- 
tion of  the  high  school,"  the  principal  replies.  "You  seem 
to  think  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  maintain  a 
certain  standard  of  scholarship.  The  standard  is  the  fixed 
element.  Pupils  who  do  not  or  cannot  meet  it  are  to  be 
rejected  or  eliminated  if  they  are  so  unwise  as  to  enter. 
The  school  is  for  the  benefit  of  a  select  group. 

I  believe  that  the  proper  function  of  the  high  school,  as 
of  all  other  schools,  is  to  do  everything  possible  to  help  boys 
and  girls  of  all  sorts  to  make  the  most  of  themselves.  It 
ought  to  accept  the  pupils  as  they  are  and  help  them  to 
grow,  instead  of  rejecting  them  because  they  do  not  conform 
to  an  arbitrary  standard.  The  criterion  for  deciding  whether 
a  boy  or  girl  should  go  to  high  school  ought,  I  think,  to  be 
this :  '  Can  the  high  school  do  more  for  his  development 
than  the  elementary  school  or  industrial  life?'  I  admit 
that,  if  your  view  of  the  matter  should  prevail,  it  would 
be  a  mistake  for  such  pupils  as  we  are  discussing  to  go  to 
high  school,  but  I  believe  that  the  mistake  would  be  yours. 

You  recommend  that  some  of  these  people  stay  a  year 


174  VARIATIONS   IN   PUPILS'   ABILITY 

longer  in  the  elementary  school.  We  have  tried  that  plan 
a  great  many  times,  but  it  has  the  very  effect  which  you 
deplore.  The  pupils  leave  school.  They  are  older  than 
the  other  pupils  and  do  not  feel  that  they  really  belong  'with 
a  lot  of  kids.'  They  come  to  dislike  school  and  are  glad  to 
leave  it.  We  try  hard  to  persuade  them  to  stay,  but  we  are 
handicapped.  I  am  confident  that  the  high  school  with 
its  varied  equipment,  its  method  of  control  adapted  to 
older  pupils,  and  its  athletic  activities,  could,  if  it  would, 
do  far  more  for  these  people  than  we  can  possibly  do." 

Our  teacher  objects  that  lowering  the  standard  to  fit 
poor  students  will  spoil  the  school  for  the  good  ones. 
"How,"  he  asks,  "can  they  prepare  for  college?  They 
will  never  cover  the  ground  in  four  years,  and  they  will  get 
into  lazy  habits." 

"I  don't  want  any  lowering  of  standard,"  the  principal 
declares.  "I  want  standards  adapted  to  the  abilities  of  the 
students.  If  we  are  aiming  to  educate  real  boys  and  girls, 
we  must  abandon  the  idea  of  a  single  arbitrary  standard, 
which  can  fit  only  a  few  of  them.  Here  !  "  (handing  him  a 
book)  "read  this  and  you  will  see  what  I  mean." 

The  teacher  reads  the  book  which  records  careful  studies 
of  individual  differences  among  children  and  adults.  It 
gives  him  a  new  idea.  He  has  always  been  aware,  of  course, 
that  people  differ  but  he  has  never  realized  before  how 
significant  these  differences  are  for  interpreting  the  behavior 
of  people.  He  has  assumed  that  most  people  could,  if 
they  were  sufficiently  energetic  and  ambitious,  accomplish 
about  as  much  as  anyone  else.  The  facts  reported  in  the 
book  show  that  in  any  group  of  persons  there  is  wide  varia- 
tion in  any  trait  that  may  be  considered  and  that,  to  a 


INDIVIDUAL   DIFFERENCES  175 

considerable  extent,  these  differences  are  due  to  inheritance. 
He  realizes  for  the  first  time  that  even  the  energy  and  ambi- 
tion needed  for  the  highest  success  probably  depend  a 
good  deal  upon  heredity.  The  idea  of  native  capacity 
which  sets  bounds  to  an  individual's  growth  is  strongly 
impressed  upon  him. 

This  idea  keeps  recurring  in  the  teacher's  consciousness 
during  the  next  few  weeks.  As  he  works  with  his  classes, 
he  notices  plenty  of  confirming  evidence.  He  gives  some 
tests  which  are  difficult  enough  so  that  nobody  can  finish 
them  in  the  time  allowed  and  yet  contain  questions  suffi- 
ciently easy  to  enable  the  poorest  student  to  answer  some 
of  them.  The  results  when  tabulated  prove  to  be  consistent 
with  measurements  reported  in  the  book.  The  majority 
of  the  class  receive  marks  not  very  far  from  the  average, 
and  the  farther  a  mark  is  above  or  below  the  average  the 
fewer  are  the  pupils  receiving  it.  One  pupil  has  almost 
perfect  scores  in  several  tests,  although  the  teacher  had  not 
realized  that  he  was  much  more  capable  than  several 
others.  He  sees  now  that  he  had  never  before  really  tested 
this  pupil's  ability.  The  work  has  been  too  easy  for  him. 
He  notices  also  that  the  students  whose  work  had  been 
unsatisfactory  are  by  no  means  alike.  A  few  of  them  have 
marks  as  good  as  the  average,  while  one  or  two  answered 
only  a  single  question  correctly. 

As  he  reflects  on  this  matter  of  individual  differences, 
he  finds  himself  adopting  the  view  of  the  elementary  school 
principal  in  regard  to  the  function  of  the  high  school.  He 
begins  to  vary  the  lesson  assignments  so  as  to  give  the 
abler  pupils  stimulating  tasks  without  discouraging  the 
slower  members  of  the  class,  and  he  sometimes  works  with 


176  VARIATIONS  IN   PUPILS'   ABILITY 

the  poorest  students  in  a  separate  group  for  a  part  of  a 
period.  When  he  notices  that  one  of  this  group  is  absent,  he 
fears  that  the  fellow  is  becoming  discouraged  and  promptly 
looks  him  up,  although  a  few  weeks  before,  he  had  been 
wishing  that  this  pupil  knew  enough  to  quit.  He  has  the 
satisfaction  of  having  nearly  every  member  of  the  class 
finish  the  term,  with  the  assurance,  also,  of  several  that  it 
was  his  help  and  encouragement  which  had  prevented  their 
dropping  out. 

PROBLEM  126.  —  Teachers  are  inclined  to  be  skeptical  in  re- 
gard to  rapid  promotions.  Some  teachers  rarely  recommend  a 
child  for  special  advancement.  They  feel  that  the  best  pupils 
in  the  class  are  about  what  the  normal  child  should  be.  They 
fear  that  children  who  advance  rapidly  will  suffer  later.  Very 
few  children  are  promoted  during  the  term,  yet  tests  show  that 
some  children  are  as  capable  as  the  average  child  two  years  in 
advance  of  them.  At  the  end  of  the  term,  the  superintendent 
calls  a  conference  to  consider  the  question  of  rapid  promotions. 

The  superintendent  opens  the  conference  by  saying  that, 
in  his  opinion,  the  schools  are  not  providing  adequately 
for  the  abler  children.  "Slow  and  dull  pupils,"  he  says, 
"are  held  back  and  so  take  more  than  the  normal  amount 
of  time  to  complete  a  given  amount  of  work.  If  this  is  the 
proper  thing  to  do,  it  would  seem  logical  that  the  ablest 
pupils  should  take  less  than  the  normal  period,  in  covering 
the  same  amount  of  work.  I  am  aware  that  many  teachers 
do  not  approve  of  rapid  promotion  and  I  have  no  intention 
of  insisting  arbitrarily  upon  it.  The  decision  in  such 
a  matter  ought  not  to  rest  upon  mere  opinion.  I  have 
called  this  conference  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  prob- 
lem with  you.  With  our  combined  experience  and  the 
opportunity  to  make  any  studies  that  we  please  of  the 


RAPID   PROMOTIONS  177 

pupils  in  our  schools,  we  ought  to  be  able  to  find  out  the 
truth  about  this  matter  and  come  to  an  agreement  as  to 
what  we  ought  to  do." 

He  then  calls  for  reports  from  all  the  teachers  in  regard 
to  the  probable  number  of  promotions  and  non-promotions. 
On  the  average,  about  ten  per  cent  of  each  class  are  expected 
to  repeat  the  grade.  One  teacher  expects  three  double 
promotions  from  her  class  and  another  five,  but  nobody  else 
reports  more  than  one  case  of  double  promotion  and  nearly 
all  the  teachers  have  no  such  cases  to  report.  In  the  whole 
school  system,  not  one  pupil  has  been  promoted  during  the 
term. 

Commenting  on  the  reports,  the  superintendent  says: 
"It  would  appear,  then,  that  about  ten  per  cent  of  our 
pupils  are  so  inferior  in  ability  that  they  must  repeat  the 
term's  work,  but  only  a  mere  handful  are  of  such  superior 
merit  as  to  warrant  us  in  permitting  them  to  advance  more 
rapidly  than  the  rest.  For  some  reason,  nearly  all  these 
superior  pupils  have  been  in  Miss  C.'s  class  or  Miss  F.'s 
class.  Apparently  these  two  teachers  are  always  lucky, 
for  every  year  they  recommend  several  double  promotions. 
Do  you  think  that  the  actual  abilities  of  our  pupils  corre- 
spond to  these  promotion  figures?" 

Most  of  the  teachers  think  that  the  exceptional  records 
of  Miss  C.  and  Miss  F.  are  due  to  their  own  peculiarities 
of  judgment  rather  than  to  the  superior  ability  of  their 
pupils.  They  agree  also  that  there  is  a  considerable  varia- 
tion of  ability  among  the  pupils  marked  for  regular  pro- 
motion, but  very  few  think  that  any  of  these  have  such 
exceptional  ability  as  to  warrant  special  promotion. 

"Can  we  get  any  accurate  measures   of  ability,"    the 

E.    T.    PROB.  —  12 


178  VARIATIONS   IN   PUPILS'    ABILITY 

superintendent  asks,  "which  will  enable  us  to  base  our 
judgment  upon  facts,  rather  than  opinions?"  Someone 
suggests  that  averages  of  the  monthly  marks  be  used. 
Another  thinks  that  the  standard  tests  in  arithmetic,  read- 
ing, etc.,  would  involve  less  of  the  personal  equation.  An- 
other proposes  standard  intelligence  tests.  The  superin- 
tendent then  appoints  a  committee  to  collect  such  figures 
and  present  the  facts  at  the  next  meeting. 

The  committee  prepares  charts  based  on  the  three  kinds 
of  data.  There  is  a  general  similarity  in  the  results  in 
every  grade,  the  only  marked  exceptions  being  in  the  tabu- 
lations of  certain  teachers'  marks,  where  a  few  show  a  very 
large  number  of  high  marks  and  others  a  preponderance  of 
low  ones.  The  typical  distribution  of  the  measures  of 
ability  of  the  members  of  a  class  shows  a  symmetrical 
arrangement  about  the  middle  mark.  Half  the  class  is 
included  among  the  marks  near  the  middle  and,  as  the 
marks  recede  from  the  median,  either  above  it  or  below  it, 
the  number  of  children  who  received  these  marks  diminishes 
rapidly.  The  highest  marks  are  usually  about  as  far  above 
the  median  as  the  poorest  ones  are  below  it. 

All  of  the  teachers  are  surprised  at  the  range  of  abilities 
in  every  grade.  The  similarity  of  the  results  in  every  tabu- 
lation convinces  nearly  everybody  that  superior  children 
are  to  be  found  in  every  class,  but  when  the  question  of 
rapid  promotion  is  brought  up,  there  are  very  few  converts. 

"I  think  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  hurry  these  children 
along,"  says  one.  ''The  first  thing  you  know,  they  will  be 
breaking  down.  I  know  a  girl  who  had  to  stay  out  of  school 
for  two  years  and  the  doctor  said  it  was  the  result  of  over- 
work. If  these  children  can  do  the  work  so  easily,  let  them 


RAPID   PROMOTIONS  179 

have  more  time  in  the  open  air.  Some  of  the  parents 
have  told  me  that  they  don't  want  their  children  pushed." 
Several  heads  nod  vigorous  approval,  but  the  superintend- 
ent asks:  "Are  the  superior  pupils  in  greater  need  of 
open  air  than  other  pupils?  Do  pupils  who  receive  rapid 
promotion  break  down  more  frequently  than  other  pupils?  " 
Several  teachers  say,  "yes,"  and  start  to  tell  about  cases 
of  which  they  have  heard,  but  the  superintendent  asks 
again :  "How  can  we  get  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  questions 
which  I  just  asked?  Will  a  few  isolated  instances  help 
us?"  Teachers  shake  their  heads  at  this  last  question  and 
one  suggests:  "We  can  look  up  the  school  attendance. 
If  the  superior  pupils  have  been  as  regular  as  the  average, 
that  would  indicate  that  they  are  not  inferior  in  health." 
Another  says:  "We  might  take  all  the  pupils  who  have 
had  rapid  promotions  and  compare  their  attendance  with 
the  average  both  before  and  after  the  special  advancement. 
If  the  special  promotion  has  affected  their  health  we  might 
expect  their  attendance  to  fall  off  in  comparison  with  the 
class  average."  A  committee  is  appointed  to  look  up  these 
facts. 

Then  someone  says:  "It  is  not  so  much  a  question  of 
health  as  of  maturity.  Some  of  the  ablest  pupils  are  the 
youngest  in  the  class.  They  may  be  able  to  get  along  all 
:  right  for  several  years,  but  if  you  keep  advancing  them, 
when  they  get  to  the  upper  grades  or  the  high  school,  they 
will  not  be  mature  enough  to  understand  the  work  and 
presently  they  will  have  to  repeat  a  grade." 

This  argument  appeals  very  strongly  to  many  teachers. 
The  superintendent  starts  to  ask  another  question  but  a 
teacher  exclaims:  "We  can  test  that  in  the  same  way. 


l8o  VARIATIONS   IN  PUPILS'   ABILITY 

Take  all  the  cases  of  rapid  promotion  and  see  how  many 
have  had  to  repeat  grades  afterward.  If  their  record,  as 
compared  with  the  rest  of  the  class,  is  just  as  good  after 
the  special  promotion  as  before,  the  objection  falls  to  the 
ground."  This  study  is  assigned  to  another  committee. 

At  the  next  meeting,  the  first  committee  reports  that  it 
has  studied  the  attendance  records  of  two  classes  taken  at. 
random.  It  finds  no  evidence  that  pupils  of  superior  ability 
arc  inferior  in  health.  The  attendance  records  of  some  fall 
below  the  average,  but  in  both  classes  the  average  at- 
tendance of  the  superior  group  has  been  better  than  that 
of  the  whole  class.  The  committee  reports  also  on  forty- 
six  cases  of  rapid  promotion.  In  individual  instances, 
attendance  after  the  special  advancement  was  poorer  in 
comparison  with  the  class  average  than  before,  but  taking 
the  group  as  a  whole,  the  later  attendance,  in  comparison 
with  the  class  record,  was  almost  exactly  the  same  as  before 
the  promotion. 

The  committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  effect  of 
immaturity  on  the  subsequent  school  career  of  pupils 
receiving  rapid  promotion  reports  a  similar  result.  The 
committee  looked  up  all  the  cases  which  it  could  find  in 
the  records.  Several  had  already  graduated  from  high 
school  and  some  had  received  more  than  one  special  pro- 
motion. In  a  few  cases,  pupils  had  failed  of  promotion 
after  having  received  a  double  promotion,  but  all  but  one 
of  these  were  pupils  who  were  older  than  the  average  for 
their  grades  and  therefore  do  not  affect  the  question  of 
immaturity.  In  general,  pupils  who  have  received  rapid 
advancement  have  continued  to  stand  well  in  their  classes. 

A    teacher    says:     "Admitting    that,    on    the  average, 


RAPID    PROMOTIONS  l8l 

superior  pupils  may  be  advanced  rapidly  without  injury, 
what  about  the  individual  children  who  are  not  strong  or 
who  are  very  much  younger  than  their  classmates?"  It 
is  agreed,  after  brief  discussion,  that  such  pupils  should 
advance  at  the  normal  rate,  staying  out  of  school  part  of 
the  time,  or,  if  it  is  merely  a  question  of  age,  taking  addi- 
tional reading,  or  nature  study,  or  shop  work. 

"Are  there  any  remaining  doubts  about  the  wisdom  of 
rapid  promotion  for  superior  pupils?"  asks  the  superin- 
tendent. There  is  no  reply,  but  evidently  some  "are  of 
the  same  opinion  still."  "We  have  made  an  earnest 
effort,"  he  continues,  "to  find  out  what  we  ought  to  do. 
All  the  facts  point  in  one  direction.  I  feel,  therefore,  that 
we  ought  to  give  the  plan  a  thorough  trial.  Where  our 
standard  tests  show  that  a  pupil  has  exceptional  ability 
we  ought  to  give  him  every  possible  opportunity  to  advance 
unless  there  is  some  good  reason  for  holding  him  back.  But 
we  ought  not  to  consider  the  question  settled,  for  we  have 
studied  only  a  small  number  of  cases.  We  ought  to  keep 
a  record  of  results,  and  be  prepared  to  modify  our  practice 
if  further  experience  shows  that  we  are  wrong." 

PRINCIPLES  REGARDING  VARIATIONS  IN  ABILITY  OF  PUPILS 

1.  Although  children  of  a  certain  grade  have  certain  common 
characteristics   which   should   be   understood  by   the   teacher, 
they  present  so  many  differences  that  it  is  most  important  to 
think  of  them  and  deal  with  them  as  individuals. 

2.  No  two  children  in  the  class  have  the  same  inherited  traits, 
physical   and   mental.     They   have   been   influenced   by   very 
different  factors  of  environment :    home,  school,  neighborhood, 
associates,   etc.     Ideas,   habits,   ambitions,   temperaments   are 
unlike. 

3.  A  teacher  should  Lake  advantage  of  available  knowledge  in 


182  VARIATIONS   IN   PUPILS'    ABILITY 

regard  to  the  previous  experience  of  his  pupils.  The  knowledge 
of  their  former  teachers  should  be  sought.  Acquaintance  with 
the  home  environment  is  essential  to  intelligent  action  by  the 
teacher. 

4.  A  pupil's  capacities,  rather  than  a  general  ideal  of  what 
children  ought  to  be,  should  guide  the  teacher  in  his  work  and 
in  interpreting  results. 

5.  A  much  greater  amount  of  differentiation  in  subject  matter 
and  method  is  possible  than  is  usually  employed.     Work  of  a 
formal  nature  can  be  presented  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil 
can  make  its  accomplishment  an  individual  problem. 

6.  It  is  at  least  as  important  that  gifted  pupils  make  the  most 
of  their  talents  as  that  handicapped  pupils  be  given  work  that 
suits  their  abilities. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  127.  —  A  primary  teacher  puts  before  her  class  the 
project  of  making  Christmas  boxes.  Some  of  the  children  have 
quite  definite  ideas  of  what  their  boxes  should  be  like.  A  few 
would,  if  permitted,  go  ahead  with  the  work  without  help. 
Many  wait  to  be  told  what  to  do,  and  some  of  these  make  blun- 
ders unless  they  are  shown  every  step  and  watched  carefully. 
If  allowed  to  work  freely,  a  few  do  the  work  very  rapidly  and 
well,  others  go  ahead  "  slap-dash  "  and  spoil  their  material.  If 
the  whole  class  is  required  to  await  directions  and  inspection  of 
work,  interest  flags,  and  accomplishment  is  small.  Furthermore 
the  teacher  realizes  that  the  children  are  getting  no  training  in 
thinking  and  self-directed  execution. 

PROBLEM  128.  —  The  children  in  a  certain  class  show  wide 
variation  in  ability  in  arithmetic  and  spelling.  The  teacher 
realizes  that  many  are  not  making  as  good  progress  as  they 
might  if  their  individual  needs  could  be  attended  to.  With 
thirty-five  in  the  class,  she  does  not  see  how  she  can  do  more 
than  to  help  a  few  especially  dull  ones  and  those  who  lose  time 
because  of  sickness. 

PROBLEM  129.  —  In  a  high  school  class  in  science,  there  are 
eleven  boys  and  sixteen  girls.  Two  of  the  boys  and  half  of  the 
girls  are  of  a  mentally  docile  type  who  try  hard  to  master  any 


VARIATIONS    IN    PUPILS'   ABILITY  183 

assignment  which  is  given.  They  do  not  really  grasp  the  signifi- 
cance of  much  that  is  studied  and  show  little  interest  or  ability 
in  applying  their  knowledge  independently.  Four  of  the  boys 
and  one  girl  are  keenly  interested  in  scientific  things,  have  read 
a  great  deal  of  popular  science  and  experimented  with  home- 
made apparatus.  They  find  the  ordinary  textbook  work  rather 
dull,  but  have  more  knowledge  of  applications,  in  a  superficial 
way,  than  the  teacher.  The  rest  of  the  boys  vary  in  ability  from 
good  to  poor.  They  have  no  special  interest  in  science  but  most 
of  them  have  no  great  difficulty  in  understanding  it.  The  rest 
of  the  girls  vary  in  general  ability  from  good  to  poor.  They 
have  not  the  slightest  interest  in  science  and  find  it  "  all  Greek." 
Not  being  of  the  docile  type,  they  do  not  make  any  strenuous 
effort. 

PROBLEM  130.  —  A  teacher  is  called  upon  to  report  which  of 
her  pupils  should  be  promoted.  She  realizes  that  there  are 
great  variations  in  ability  among  the  members  of  the  class,  and 
a  corresponding  variation  in  their  knowledge  of  the  subject 
matter  of  the  course  for  the  grade.  Few  have  really  mastered 
it,  although  most  of  the  class  were  able  to  write  passable  tests 
when  the  work  was  freshly  in  mind.  She  feels  the  need  of  some 
principle  upon  which  to  base  her  decision. 

PROBLEM  131.  —  All  children  do  practically  the  same  work  in 
music  and  drawing  in  school.  Unless  a  parent  can  afford  to 
provide  private  lessons,  a  pupil  with  special  ability  has  no  chance 
to  develop  it. 

PROBLEM  132.  —  The  superintendent  suggests  that  the  needs  of 
pupils  of  different  abilities  and  interests  can  probably  be  provided 
for  to  some  extent,  even  in  high  school  classes,  by  making  dif- 
ferent lesson  assignments  for  different  groups  and  sometimes 
using  a  part  of  a  period  for  teaching  a  part  of  the  class  while  the 
rest  are  working  by  themselves.  Most  of  the  teachers  of  the 
upper  grades  and  the  high  school  regard  this  as  quite  imprac- 
ticable and  ignore  the  suggestion.  One  teacher  decides  to  give 
it  a  thorough  trial  and  sets  to  work  to  think  out  a  method  of 
using  it  and  testing  the  results. 

PROBLEM  133.  —  At  the  opening  of  the  school  year,  a  principal 
suggests  that  teachers  look  up  the  previous  records  of  their 


1 84  VARIATIONS  IN  PUPILS'   ABILITY 

pupils  and  consult  their  former  teachers,  in  order  to  get  all  the 
available  information  about  them.  One  teacher  remarks  to 
another :  "  I  make  it  a  point  not  to  listen  to  anything  about  a 
new  class.  I  don't  want  to  get  any  prejudices.  I  prefer  to  get 
acquainted  with  the  children  myself." 

PROBLEM  134.  —  A  musician  who  has  recently  moved  to  town 
brings  his  thirteen-year-old  boy  to  school.  The  father  says  that 
the  boy  is  talented  and  is  making  splendid  progress  with  the 
violin.  He  practices  five  hours  a  day.  The  father  wants  him 
to  come  to  school  only  two  or  three  hours  a  day  and  take  only 
English  and  history.  The  principal  is  willing  to  make  this 
arrangement,  if  the  eighth-grade  teacher  consents.  She  is 
inclined  to  object,  but  is  asked  to  think  it  over. 

PROBLEM  135.  —  In  a  certain  school  district,  about  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  pupils  are  negroes.  Most  of  the  teachers  regard 
them  as  an  inferior,  repulsive  race.  They  think  of  them  as  a  homo- 
geneous group,  ascribing  to  all  the  uncleanliness,  viciousness,  and 
stupidity  which  they  observe  in  individual  cases.  They  think  of 
white  children,  in  comparison  with  the  negroes,  as  a  markedly 
superior  group.  The  tendency  is  to  think  of  a  dainty  little 
white  girl  from  a  home  of  refinement  and  a  dirty,  uncouth 
negro  boy,  who  has  been  brought  up  amid  squalor  and  degrading 
influences,  as  types  of  the  two  races.  One  of  the  teachers  feels 
that  the  negroes  are  not  given  a  fair  chance.  There  are  many 
heated  arguments  which  have  no  effect  upon  the  opinions  of 
the  disputants.  The  teacher  wonders  what  she  can  do  to  get 
a  square  deal  for  the  negroes. 

PROBLEM  136.  —  A  teacher  has  two  annoying  pupils  in  her  class. 
A  girl  appears  to  be  inattentive  and  stupid  during  recitations. 
She  frequently  shows  that  she  knows  little  or  nothing  about  a 
subject  that  the  class  has  just  been  discussing.  She  apparently 
pays  little  attention  to  the  teacher's  directions.  The  teacher 
knows  that  she  is  capable  of  doing  better  work,  because  she 
reads  well,  writes  excellent  compositions,  and  does  well  on  exam- 
inations which  are  based  on  matter  which  she  has  studied  in 
textbooks.  A  boy  is  often  listless,  sometimes  even  falls  asleep 
in  the  classroom. 


VARIATIONS    IN   PUPILS'   ABILITY  185 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapters  X,  XV. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  Part  III. 
Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  Chapter  X. 
Sechrist,  F.  K.,  Education  and  the  General  Welfare,  Chapters  X,  XII. 
Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Intelligence  of  School  Children. 
Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  Chapters  I,  II,  V. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Engelhardt,  N.,  The  Classroom  Teacher,  Chapters 
IV,  VIII,  IX. 


CHAPTER   IX 
PROBLEMS   INVOLVING   ECONOMY   OF   TIME 

DISTINGUISHING  THE  IMPORTANT  FROM  THE  NON-ESSEN- 
TIAL; EFFICIENCY  AND  SYSTEM;  THE  VALUE  OF 
PLANNING 

PROBLEM  137.  —  A  teacher  plans  her  recitations,  but  seldom 
succeeds  in  accomplishing  the  work  laid  out ;  frequently  con- 
tinues the  assignment  for  a  second,  sometimes  for  a  third  day ; 
usually  has  to  skim  over  the  last  part  of  the  work  of  the  term, 
omitting  some  things  which  would  be  valuable  if  there  were 
time ;  declines  to  take  up  some  questions  proposed  by  pupils, 
because  there  is  not  time  for  them. 

THE  teacher  becomes  more  and  more  dissatisfied  with  her 
work  and  even  thinks  of  giving  up  teaching.  Other  teachers 
tell  her  that  she  is  setting  too  high  a  standard.  One  says : 
"I  simply  cover  the  course  of  study  and  flunk  pupils  who 
don't  do  reasonably  well.  There's  no  use  in  breaking  your 
heart  trying  to  make  them  all  come  up  to  your  ideal." 
This  affords  no  comfort  to  our  teacher.  She  cannot  bring 
herself  to  pass  on  to  a  new  lesson  when  the  class  has  not 
mastered  the  previous  work. 

One  day  she  reads  an  account  of  a  successful  business 
man  who  has  died  recently.  The  article  lays  stress  on  the 
magnitude  of  his  accomplishments  and  reports  a  conversa- 
tion in  which  he  attributed  his  success  to  a  habit  of  denning 
his  purposes  and  putting  complete  faith  in  his  ability  to 
accomplish  them.  "I  don't  waste  time,"  he  is  reported  to 
have  said,  "by  making  a  move  until  I  know  just  where  I 

186 


THE   IMPORTANT   AND   THE   NON-ESSENTIAL  187 

am  going.  When  I  know  just  what  I  want,  I  look  for  the 
essential  elements  of  the  problem  and  bring  my  whole  effort 
to  bear  in  mastering  them.  I  try  to  make  every  minute 
count  in  accomplishing  my  purpose."  This  fires  the 
teacher's  ambition. 

She  begins  by  asking  herself  the  question,  "Do  I  know 
just  what  I  am  trying  to  do?"  and  concludes  that  she  has 
been  attempting  to  have  all  of  her  pupils  master  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  the  textbooks  so  that  they  will  know  it  ac- 
curately. "There  may  be  something  wrong  in  my  method 
of  teaching,"  she  thinks,  "or  I  may  be  trying  to  do  the 
wrong  thing.  I  have  certainly  tried  my  best  to  cover  the 
course  of  study  thoroughly  and  I  have  never  succeeded. 
I  have  only  a  certain  amount  of  time.  I  can't  change 
that.  Either  the  task  is  impossible  in  the  time  allowed, 
or  I  have  been  wasting  time  on  non-essentials.  What  are 
the  essentials,  then?" 

She  sees  that  she  has  been  making  no  distinction  between 
the  various  parts  of  the  course,  but  has  been  trying  to  cover 
it  all  thoroughly.  She  tries  to  select  the  parts  which  might 
be  omitted  with  least  loss  to  the  pupils,  and  has  difficulty  in 
deciding  what  to  leave  out.  It  is  hard  to  admit  that  any 
item  which  she  knows  herself  is  not  important  for  the  pupils. 
Presently  she  sees  that  the  very  attempt  to  differentiate 
between  the  important  and  the  non-essential  implies  a 
change  of  aim.  The  moment  she  abandons  the  idea  of 
teaching  everything  in  the  books,  she  must  have  some  basis 
of  selection. 

The  trouble  is  that  she  has  no  clear  idea  as  to  what  that 
basis  should  be.  This  leads  her  to  consider  what  the 
course  of  study  is  for.  Her  first  thought  is  based  on  the 


1 88  PROBLEMS    INVOLVING   ECONOMY   OF   TIME 

idea  which  has  really  actuated  her  up  to  this  time,  although 
she  has  never  formulated  it  definitely,  namely,  that  it  is  a 
statement  of  the  knowledge  which  everyone  should  possess, 
but  this  immediately  brings  her  back  to  the  starting  point. 
What  knowledge  should  everyone  possess?  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  there  is  great  variation  in  the  knowledge  which 
different  people  have.  Her  own  experience  convinces  her 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  all  the  pupils  in  a  class  the  same 
knowledge  in  a  given  time,  unless  the  amount  is  set  far 
below  the  capacity  of  many  of  the  members.  It  occurs 
to  her  also  that  mere  knowledge  is  not  the  most  valuable 
possession.  Some  people  who  are  walking  encyclopedias 
are  not  at  all  efficient. 

After  continued  reflection,  and  some  reading  on  educa- 
tional aims,  she  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  impossible 
to  have  all  the  pupils  in  a  class  accomplish  exactly  the  same 
things  in  a  given  time  and  that  the  teacher's  aim  should 
be  to  enable  each  one  to  get  as  much  development  as  he  is 
capable  of  getting  during  the  term.  This  leads  her  to  mod- 
ify the  assignments  for  study.  She  begins  to  hold  some 
pupils  responsible  for  a  more  comprehensive  grasp  of  a 
subject  than  others.  She  tries  to  see  that  the  poorest 
students  understand  ideas  and  processes  which  they  must 
use  in  later  work,  but  she  does  not  expect  them  to  do  as 
much  reading  or  to  work  out  as  many  examples  as  the  abler 
pupils  can  do.  She  finds  that  this  recognition  of  individual 
capacity  enables  her  to  make  more  rapid  progress  and 
presently  discovers  that  a  fair  proportion  of  the  class  will 
have  done  considerably  more,  by  the  end  of  the  term,  than 
the  course  of  study  calls  for. 

Having  grasped  the  idea  that  the  mastery  of  subject 


THE   IMPORTANT  AND   THE   NON-ESSENTIAL  189 

matter  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  end  in  itself  but  as  a 
means  of  individual  development,  the  teacher  gradually 
formulates  more  definitely  her  ideas  in  regard  to  the  nature 
of  such  development.  She  begins  to  work  to  arouse  in- 
terests which  will  lead  pupils  to  read  and  think  more  on 
their  own  initiative.  She  tries  to  develop  self-reliance  and 
comes  to  believe  that  it  is  more  important  that  the  pupils 
shall  have  a  desire  to  find  the  answers  to  questions  and 
ability  to  use  books  efficiently  in  getting  needed  information 
than  that  they  shall  know  all  the  facts  in  the  textbook. 
She  no  longer  feels  conscience  smitten  if  a  few  pages 
of  a  text  are  not  discussed  in  class,  and  she  feels  free  to 
depart  at  times  from  the  order  in  which  topics  are  treated 
by  the  author.  She  selects  for  special  study  and  discussion 
matters  which  she  thinks  will  be  particularly  stimulating 
and  will  put  fruitful  ideas  in  the  pupils'  minds. 

At  the  end  of  the  term  the  teacher  formulates  her  solution 
of  the  problem  of  covering  the  course  of  study  in  the  time 
allotted,  thus: 

1.  The  purpose  is  not  to  cover  the  subject  matter  of  the 
course  of  study  but  to  make  use  of  this  in  furthering  the  de- 
velopment of  the  individual  pupils  of  the  class  according  to 
their  capacities. 

2.  The  most  important  elements  of  such  development  are 
stimulating  interests,  ambitions,  ideas  which  are  likely  to  be 
used  frequently,  self-reliance,  ability  to  use  books,  maps,  and 
other  material  to  get  needed  information,  ability  to  help  other 
members  of  the  class  and  to  get  help  from  them. 

3.  The  subject  matter  for  class  discussion  should  be  that 
which  involves  most  difficulty,  or  is  needed  for  understanding 
work  which  is  to  come  later,  or  which  will  start  new  interests 
and  valuable  ideas.     Other  material  which  is  needed  for  con- 
necting the  topics  taken  up  in  class  can  be  gone  over  rapidly, 
either  by  the  teacher  or  by  individual  reading  by  the  pupils. 


1 90      PROBLEMS  INVOLVING  ECONOMY  OF  TIME 

4.  It  is  wrong  to  attempt  to  have  all  pupils  do  exactly  the 
same  work.     The  class  should  be  taught  in  groups  a  part  of  the 
time.     Pupils  can  work  individually  on  certain  kinds  of  work, 
with  occasional  help  from  the  teacher.    Some  pupils  should  have 
harder  assignments  for  study  than  others. 

5.  Every  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  accomplish  as  much 
as  he  can  in  a  given  time. 

PROBLEM  138.  —  A  pupil  of  good  ability  is  sick  for  three  months 
of  the  term.  He  is  then  given  private  lessons  and  has  no  diffi- 
culty in  completing  the  work  and  rejoining  his  class  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  new  term.  This  suggests  to  the  teacher  that 
there  must  be  a  great  deal  of  time  lost  by  children  in  ordinary 
school  work.  She  wonders  whether  it  would  be  possible  to 
enable  pupils  to  accomplish  more  in  a  given  time. 

With  this  idea  in  mind,  the  teacher  observes  her  pupils 
closely  and  studies  her  own  habitual  procedure  to  see  if  she 
can  discover  opportunities  for  saving  time.  It  has  always 
been  her  practice  to  have  a  great  deal  of  oral  reading.  In 
history,  geography,  hygiene,  etc.,  her  usual  plan  has  been 
to  take  up  a  new  lesson  by  having  pupils  read  short  passages 
in  turn.  The  first  day  of  her  study  of  the  time  problem,  she 
notices  that  as  individual  pupils  read  —  some  of  them  read- 
ing so  poorly  as  to  necessitate  frequent  correction  or  repeti- 
tion —  many  of  the  other  pupils,  who  have  their  books 
before  them  and  are  supposed  to  be  following  the  text,  seem 
to  be  bored.  She  sees  that  they  are  making  practically 
no  effort  and  realizes,  as  she  observes  them,  that  they  have 
really  no  incentive  for  effort.  She  notices  one  pupil  turn- 
ing a  page  when  there  is  no  occasion  for  him  to  do  so,  and, 
moving  quietly  behind  him,  discovers  that  he  is  reading 
two  or  three  pages  in  advance  of  the  oral  reader.  She 
starts  to  rebuke  him  for  not  keeping  the  place,  but  thinks 
better  of  it  and  simply  watches  him  from  time  to  time 


THE    IMPORTANT   AND    THE    NON-ESSENTIAL  IQI 

during  the  rest  of  the  lesson.  When  she  directs  the  class 
to  put  away  books,  this  pupil  has  read  five  or  six  times  as 
much  as  the  rest  of  the  pupils.  She  immediately  questions 
him  on  the  subject  matter  which  has  been  read  aloud  and 
is  surprised  to  find  that  he  knows  the  essential  facts.  After 
school,  she  asks  him  to  tell  her  the  substance  of  what  he 
read  in  advance  of  the  class,  and  is  convinced  that  he  has 
gained  a  better  idea  of  it  than  the  average  pupil  has  obtained 
of  what  he  has  listlessly  followed  as  other  pupils  read  aloud. 
The  next  day  she  has  the  whole  class  read  silently  some  new 
material,  telling  them  to  read  until  she  stops  them  but  to 
make  sure  that  they  understand  what  they  read,  and  to 
ask  questions  when  they  meet  difficulties  which  they  cannot 
conquer  themselves.  There  is  much  variation  in  the 
amount  read,  but  everyone  has  done  much  more  than  the 
usual  lesson  assignment.  To  her  amazement,  she  discovers, 
on  questioning  the  pupils,  that  as  a  rule  those  who  have  read 
most  have  the  best  understanding  of  what  they  have  read. 
She  concludes  that  her  old  practice  of  having  forty  pupils 
sit  with  open  books,  following  the  oral  reading  of  a  few 
individuals,  is  a  terrible  waste  of  time. 

On  substituting  silent  reading  for  most  of  the  oral  work, 
she  is  troubled  for  a  time  by  the  impossibility  of  keeping 
the  class  together.  If  she  gives  a  fixed  assignment  some  of 
the  pupils  finish  it  in  six  or  seven  minutes  while  others  have 
not  mastered  it  in  twenty.  She  meets  this  situation  partly 
by  getting  additional  reading  material  for  the  fast  readers 
and  partly  by  working  with  the  class  in  groups. 

One  day,  a  parent  complains  that  the  assignment  for 
home  study  was  unreasonable.  Her  daughter  spent  an 
hour  and  a  half  on  the  arithmetic  lesson  and  was  sent  to 


IQ2      PROBLEMS  INVOLVING  ECONOMY  OF  TIME 

bed  protesting,  before  she  had  finished  all  the  examples. 
The  teacher  thinks  that  the  assignment  was  a  fair  one  and 
asks  all  the  pupils  to  report  on  the  time  spent  on  the  lesson. 
One  or  two  had  spent  nearly  as  long  as  the  girl  above 
mentioned,  most  of  the  class  had  completed  the  work  in 
25  to  40  minutes,  and  a  few  —  most  of  whom  had  perfect 
papers  —  had  spent  only  fifteen  minutes. 

"More  waste  time  there,"  thinks  the  teacher.  "Some 
of  these  children  could  easily  do  twice  the  work  which  I 
am  giving  them."  She  varies  the  assignments  with  the  aim 
of  having  pupils  work  more  nearly  in  accordance  with  their 
abilities.  Even  grouping  the  class  does  not  fully  meet 
the  situation,  for  there  are  differences  among  the  children 
of  any  group  which  she  forms.  In  the  effort  to  keep  two 
of  the  pupils  busy,  she  tells  them  one  day,  that  they  need 
not  work  with  the  rest  of  the  group  but  may  take  their 
books  and  go  ahead  as  fast  as  they  can.  She  has  no  further 
trouble  with  these  pupils.  They  occasionally  ask  for  help, 
but  at  the  end  of  the  term  they  have  completed  the  whole 
of  the  next  term's  work  in  several  subjects  and  a  double 
promotion  is  the  obvious  result. 

The  teacher  finds  various  other  leaks  in  her  store  of 
minutes.  It  occurs  to  her  that  it  may  not  be  profitable  to 
have  the  whole  class  study  the  same  spelling  lesson  and 
listen  while  the  words  are  spelled  over  and  over.  For  a 
day  or  two,  she  dictates  the  new  lesson  without  giving  any 
opportunity  for  study  and  finds  that  many  of  the  class 
already  know  the  words.  Thereafter,  she  makes  spelling 
an  individual  problem.  The  pupils  are  told  what  words 
they  are  expected  to  master  during  the  term  and  are  offered 
tests,  on  any  part  of  the  work,  whenever  they  are  ready 


THE   IMPORTANT  AND   THE   NON-ESSENTIAL  193 

for  them.  They  keep  notebooks  of  their  individual  diffi- 
culties and  put  their  chief  effort  upon  these. 

Before  long  the  teacher's  enthusiasm  for  saving  time  com- 
municates itself  to  the  pupils  and  many  of  them  acquire  a 
good  deal  of  ability  to  work  on  their  own  problems,  espe- 
cially on  the  formal  parts  of  arithmetic,  spelling,  language, 
and  penmanship. 

The  necessity  of  teaching  the  pupils  in  groups  and  giving 
more  attention  to  individuals,  which  becomes  apparent 
as  soon  as  the  teacher  undertakes  seriously  to  have  every- 
body work  up  to  his  capacity,  makes  economy  of  the 
teacher's  time  a  pressing  problem.  More  and  more  she 
turns  over  to  pupils  duties  which  she  had  been  performing 
herself.  All  such  matters  as  the  care  and  distribution  of 
material,  keeping  blackboards  in  order,  caring  for  plants, 
writing  lessons  on  the  blackboard,  adjusting  shades,  regu- 
lating the  ventilating  damper,  are  gradually  assumed  by  the 
pupils  in  order  to  give  the  teacher  time  for  work  which  she 
alone  can  do.  Even  the  labor  of  correcting  exercises  is 
reduced  to  a  considerable  extent,  as  pupils  learn  to  work  on 
their  own  problems  and  to  make  use  of  standards  and  keys 
in  checking  their  results,  and  realize  that  only  by  being 
scrupulous  in  this  checking  can  they  be  sure  of  meeting 
the  tests  which  the  teacher  uses  regularly  to  determine  their 
progress. 

PROBLEM  139.  —  A  teacher  becomes  discouraged  with  the 
amount  of  work  which  she  has  to  do  :  marking  papers,  planning 
lessons,  reports,  and  conferences.  She  has  to  work  late  to  make 
preparation  for  the  next  day  and  is  sometimes  so  tired  that  she 
has  to  omit  the  preparation.  This  tends  to  become  increasingly 
frequent.  She  cannot  find  time  for  professional  reading  or 
recreation. 

E.  T.  PROB.  — 13 


194  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING  ECONOMY   OF   TIME 

The  teacher  notices  an  advertisement  of  a  book  on  per- 
sonal efficiency  and  sends  for  it.  The  author's  experience 
has  evidently  been  in  the  commercial  field  and  she  finds 
no  references  to  her  own  specific  problems,  but  she  notes 
several  principles  which  are  suggestive  and  she  proceeds 
to  apply  them  to  her  own  case. 

1.  To  be  efficient  one  must  be  systematic.     He  must  lay  out 
his  job  in  accordance  with  his  time,  and  have  a  regular  time  for 
performing  regular  duties,  and  stick  to  his  program.     If  he  simply 
does  the  first  thing  which  confronts  him,  he  is  likely  to  be  always 
behindhand,  and  important  duties  will  be  neglected. 

2.  To  be  efficient  one  must  take  time  for  regular  exercise, 
for  recreation,  and  for  cultural  development.     He  must  not 
allow  his  work  to  make  a  slave  of  him.     Except  in  rare  cases 
of  emergency,  he  should  not  allow  his  work  to  encroach  upon 
his  time  for  the  other  important  parts  of  an  all-around  life. 

.3.  One  should  cultivate  the  habit  of  working  at  top  speed 
while  he  works,  and  dropping  work  completely  at  other  times. 
He  should  study  to  discover  ways  of  economizing  time. 

4.  One  should  reduce  all  regular  duties  to  a  habit.  It  is 
wasteful  in  the  extreme  to  make  a  new  problem  of  matters  which 
arise  every  day.  Find  the  best  way  of  doing  a  thing  and  do  it 
regularly  until  it  becomes  automatic. 

The  teacher  begins  by  trying  to  lay  out  a  time  program. 
She  makes  a  list  of  the  principal  features  of  her  life  as 
she  thinks  it  ought  to  be :  school  duties  during  school 
hours,  school  duties  out  of  school  hours,  professional  study, 
cultural  activities,  recreation,  physical  exercise,  religious 
life,  social  and  community  activities.  She  then  makes  out 
a  tentative  schedule,  revising  it  frequently  as  she  works, 
until  she  has  evolved  the  following : 


EFFICIENCY   AND   SYSTEM 


195 


Monday  Tuesday  Wednesday  Thursday  Friday 

Saturday 

Sunday 

Bath,  five-minute  exercise,  dress 

7 

8                         Breakfast  and  morning  paper 

Bath,  exer- 
cise, dress 

9 

10                               SCHOOL 

ii 

Misc. 
uncom- 
pleted 
sch.work 
sewing, 
shopping 

Breakfast 

9 
Mending 
etc. 

10 

ii 
Church 

12 

LUNCHEON 

I 

Dinner 

2 

3                                SCHOOL 

Recrea- 
tion or 
cultural 
enjoy- 
ment, 
excursion, 
theater, 
concert, 
etc. 

Walk     3 

or        4 

Social 
call 
5 

6 

Exercise  and  recreation 
meeting 

Exercise                        School 

work 

Dress  for  dinner 

7                              Dinner  and  sociability 

0 

Supper       7 

8 
Cultural    9 
reading 

IO 

ii 

Profes- 
g    School     sional         School 
work       reading        work 

Liter-        School 
ary              work 

Reading  for  recreation 
1  1  — 

Club 
Read- 
ing 

196  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING   ECONOMY    OF   TIME 

The  teacher  finds  a  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  adapting 
her  habits  to  her  program.  She  has  regarded  seven  o'clock 
as  her  time  for  rising,  but,  more  frequently  than  not,  she 
has  worked  until  midnight  or  later  and  has  been  so  tired  in 
the  morning  that  it  has  usually  been  7.15  to  7.30  when  she 
finally  mustered  courage  to  get  out  of  bed.  The  first  day 
after  she  makes  her  program,  she  follows  it  accurately 
until  night.  Then  marking  papers  and  planning  lessons 
for  the  next  two  days  occupy  her  until  eleven,  and  she  had 
counted  on  reading  a  chapter  or  two  after  finishing  her  work. 
She  decides  that  she  will  sleep  better  if  she  reads  a  few 
minutes  and  the  book  is  so  interesting  that  she  is  not  in 
bed  until  12.30.  The  result  is  that  she  does  not  wake  until 
7.30  and  has  to  rush  to  get  to  school  on  time.  Everything 
goes  wrong  that  day.  She  thinks  the  program  scheme  is 
impractical  anyway. 

The  next  morning  some  of  the  statements  in  the  book  on 
efficiency  come  to  mind.  She  recognizes  the  author's 
description  of  the  average  person,  who,  he  says,  is  only 
fifty  per  cent  efficient,  as  a  fair  statement  of  her  own  be- 
havior of  the  past  twenty-four  hours.  She  grits  her  teeth 
and  jumps  out  of  bed  with  the  exclamation:  "I'll  make 
myself  follow  that  program  until  I've  given  it  a  fair  trial." 
She  sticks  to  it  religiously  for  two  weeks  and  finds  that 
it  gradually  becomes  easier.  Some  of  the  daily  duties  are 
really  becoming  habits,  and  she  is  coming  to  enjoy  the 
regular  exercise  and  feel  better  for  it. 

Her  greatest  difficulty  is  to  keep  her  school  work  within 
the  time  limits.  She  has  to  spend  a  good  part  of  Sunday 
on  it,  to  catch  up.  As  she  is  pondering  this  difficulty  on  the 
second  Sunday  evening,  she  takes  up  the  efficiency  book 


EFFICIENCY    AND    SYSTEM  IQ7 

again  and  notices  the  advice  about  working  at  top  speed 
and  studying  to  discover  ways  of  economizing  time.  She 
sets  to  work  to  fit  her  school  duties  into  the  time  assigned. 
"I  have  allowed  as  much  as  I  can  spend  without  getting 
narrow  or  else  getting  sick.  That  means  that  I  must  keep 
to  the  time  limit,  and  do  it  without  doing  any  poorer  work 
with  the  children." 

The  plan  of  working  hard  during  her  work  periods  helps 
a  good  deal.  She  succeeds  in  eliminating  day  dreaming  and 
listless  paper  marking,  although  the  effort  to  concentrate 
attention  and  keep  moving  rapidly  tires  her  until  she  be- 
comes accustomed  to  it.  Presently  she  becomes  interested 
in  estimating  the  time  needed  to  do  a  given  piece  of  work 
and  comparing  the  actual  time  spent  with  the  estimate. 
After  a  few  weeks,  she  finds  herself  working  at  a  higher 
level  of  speed  and  is  actually  less  tired  than  when  she  used 
to  plod  wearily  through  a  set  of  papers. 

The  effort  to  economize  time  leads  her  to  discover  various 
ways  of  reducing  the  amount  of  out-of-school  work  without 
any  apparent  loss  to  the  pupils.  She  finds  that  there  are 
other  ways  of  helping  children  than  having  them  write 
endless  papers  to  be  marked  by  the  teacher.  In  some  cases 
the  work  can  be  taken  up  orally,  and  some  children 
can  check  up  their  own  work.  She  finds,  too,  that  the 
form  of  the  papers  affects  the  time  of  marking  to  a  surpris- 
ing extent,  and  she  works  out  schemes  of  testing  pupils' 
mastery  of  certain  subjects  through  tests  in  which  the  an- 
swers are  given  in  such  brief  form  that  they  can  be  checked 
very  rapidly. 

During  the  first  two  weeks,  the  teacher  holds  so  strictly 
to  her  program,  that  her  friends  think  she  is  getting  to  be  a 


198  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING   ECONOMY   OF   TIME 

crank.  She  refuses  a  dinner  invitation  and  stays  away  from 
an  entertainment  at  the  church.  She  has  done  this  delib- 
erately, however,  in  order  to  test  the  plan  and  get  some 
habits  well  established.  As  soon  as  the  plan  is  running 
smoothly,  she  finds  it  possible  to  use  it  with  some  flexibility. 
She  does  not  allow  herself  to  take  every  evening  off,  but 
when  some  special  event  occurs,  she  anticipates  it  by  doing 
some  extra  work  on  Saturday  or  makes  up  the  lost  time  by 
cutting  a  little  from  her  time  for  reading  or  recreation. 

After  she  has  had  her  plan  in  operation  for  about  two 
months,  she  is  asked  to  take  part  in  a  play  to  be  given  by 
the  Literary  Club.  Her  first  impulse  is  to  refuse,  because 
it  will  be  necessary  to  give  two  evenings  a  week  to  rehearsal 
and,  during  the  week  of  the  performance,  every  evening  will 
be  required.  She  knows  that  she  would  get  a  great  deal  of 
enjoyment,  and  would  come  to  know  the  other  participants 
intimately,  and  she  realizes  that  she  ought  to  broaden  her 
social  experience.  After  debating  the  question  carefully, 
she  decides  to  accept  and  proceeds  to  adjust  her  program 
to  the  new  undertaking.  By  cutting  out  a  part  of  her 
usual  recreation  for  two  weeks  before  the  rehearsals  begin, 
she  gets  ahead  of  her  schedule  for  professional  reading. 
•She  decides  that  while  working  on  the  play,  she  will  omit 
attendance  at  the  regular  club  meetings  and  will  cancel  her 
regular  evening  of  professional  reading,  making  up  some  of 
this  on  Saturday  morning  or  Sunday.  During  the  week 
of  the  performance,  she  decides  that  she  will  have  to  omit 
her  exercise  in  the  afternoon,  on  some  days  at  least.  By 
anticipating  a  part  of  her  school  work,  on  the  previous 
Saturday,  she  can  meet  this  special  emergency  without 
encroaching  upon  her  obligations  to  the  children. 


EFFICIENCY   AND   SYSTEM  199 

The  outcome  of  this  deliberate  attack  upon  her  own  prob- 
lem is  that  the  teacher  gains  better  health,  does  better  work, 
and  takes  real  enjoyment  in  her  work.  The  job  is  no 
longer  too  big  for  her. 

During  the  progress  of  the  experiment,  she  has  said  noth- 
ing to  her  friends  about  her  plan,  because  she  has  not 
been  sufficiently  confident  of  success  to  invite  the  pleasan- 
tries which  would  be  showered  upon  her  if  the  scheme  should 
be  a  "fizzle."  The  undertaking  means  so  much  to  her  that 
she  feels  that  she  could  not  bear  the  "I  told  you  so's"  of 
the  worldly-wise.  She  can  hear  a  particularly  incorrigible 
joker  referring  constantly  to  "our  efficiency  expert."  One 
evening  after  she  has  got  well  out  of  the  woods,  one  of  a 
group  who  are  chatting  after  dinner  remarks  on  the  change 
in  our  teacher.  "You  are  a  different  person,"  says  the 
former.  "I  never  saw  you  looking  so  well.  What  is  it, 
Christian  Science  or  deep  breathing?"  "Guess  again," 
says  our  teacher.  "It's  true  that  I  have  been  converted, 
but  the  cult  is  one  that  you  probably  never  heard  of.  I 
belong  to  the  Society  of  the  Systematic.  Wait !  I'll 
show  you  my  bible";  and  she  gets  her  book  on  efficiency. 
Then  she  tells  them  the  whole  story. 

The  time  schedule  arouses  plenty  of  mirth  as  well  as 
some  serious  questions.  "Heavens!"  says  one,  "thirty 
minutes  from  bed  to  breakfast !  and  you  haven't  bobbed 
your  hair  either!"  "Work  every  evening!"  says  another. 
"How  about '  all  work  and  no  play '  ?  "  "If  that's  a  teacher's 
life,"  exclaims  a  third,  "I'd  rather  sell  ribbon!"  and, 
turning  to  a  girl  who  wears  a  solitaire  diamond,  "Where 
would  you  put  Bob  in  that  schedule?"  "I  never  could 
live  by  rule,"  says  another,  "I  should  feel  like  a  jail  bird. 


200  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING    ECONOMY    OF    TIME 

Half  the  fun  in  life  would  be  gone  if  I  had  to  do  everything 
by  the  clock.  I  would  rather  go  on  a  bat  once  in  a  while 
even  if  I  had  to  sit  up  all  night  to  catch  up  with  my  work 
afterward." 

Our  teacher  laughs  with  the  rest.  She  is  sure  of  her 
ground,  as  far  as  her  own  problem  is  concerned,  so  the 
criticisms  do  not  trouble  her.  "You  must  bear  in  mind," 
she  says,  "that  this  is  my  schedule.  It  is  not  intended  for 
anyone  else.  It  works  well  for  me.  I  am  happier  than  I 
have  ever  been  before,  since  I  began  to  teach,  and  I  know 
that  I  am  doing  better  work.  I  feel  better,  and  although 
I  am  not  working  so  many  hours  as  I  used  to  do,  I  am  ac- 
complishing a  great  deal  more. 

One  of  you  suggested  that  I  was  making  my  life  '  all  work 
and  no  play/  but  if  you  count  up  the  time  assigned  to  school 
duties,  you  will  see  that  I  spend,  on  an  average,  only  about 
eight  and  a  half  hours  a  day,  and  that  Saturday  is  free  for 
other  things.  Furthermore,  I  have  not  assigned  any  def- 
inite school  work  for  vacations.  I  expect  to  do  some 
professional  reading  during  the  summer  and  occasionally  I 
shall  go  to  summer  school,  but  I  mean  to  spend  some  of  my 
vacations  in  travel  and  other  kinds  of  recreation.  I  doubt 
whether  we  can  ever  make  teaching  a  true  profession  if  we 
reduce  the  time  devoted  to  the  job  and  to  professional 
growth  much  below  my  allowance.  I  notice  that  young 
men  who  are  going  ahead  in  other  professions  seem  to  work 
evenings  a  good  deal  and  take  very  much  shorter  vacations 
than  we  do." 

"But,"  objects  one  of  the  others,  "there  isn't  the  nervous 
strain  in  the  other  professions  that  there  is  in  teaching." 
"Perhaps  that  is  true,"  our  teacher  answers,  "I  used  to  find 


EFFICIENCY   AND   SYSTEM  2OI 

myself  worn  out  at  the  end  of  the  week,  and  had  to  be 
treated  as  a  semi-invalid  most  of  the  summer,  but  I  find 
that  since  I  have  been  working  systematically,  I  feel  per- 
fectly well.  I  think  that  the  regular  life,  regular  sleep, 
and  regular  exercise  are  doing  very  much  more  for  me  than 
a  few  hours  a  week  taken  from  work  and  devoted  to  more 
or  less  aimless  indulgence.  Then  the  sense  of  mastery 
over  my  work  has  a  good  effect  on  my  health,  I  think. 
I  used  to  be  constantly  worried  and  discouraged  because 
I  could  never  seem  to  catch  up.  When  I  went  to  bed,  my 
conscience  was  not  at  rest  because  there  was  so  much  work 
left  undone.  Now  I  finish  my  work  and  forget  it  completely 
when  I  turn  to  other  things.  I  enjoy  my  recreation  so 
much  that  I  believe  I  get  more  out  of  it  than  if  I  spent 
twice  as  much  time  in  relaxation. 

But,  as  I  say,  this  schedule  may  not  fit  anyone  else. 
Anyone  who  thinks  that  he  can  do  better  without  following 
a  systematic  plan  has  no  need  of  such  a  scheme  as  this. 
Anyone  who  feels  the  need  of  system  would  probably  need 
to  make  his  own  schedule.  Individuals  differ  so  much  that 
no  fixed  plan  could  possibly  fit  everybody.  For  my  own 
part,  I  feel  that  spending  more  than  a  half  hour  in  getting 
ready  for  breakfast  is  a  waste  of  time,  and  I  imagine  that 
those  who  insist  that  they  must  have  a  full  hour  could 
really  learn  to  present  themselves  in  just  as  attractive  form 
in  less  time,  if  they  really  desired  to  save  minutes  for  some- 
thing more  important.  However,  if  they  really  need  an 
extra  half  hour,  they  would  have  to  modify  the  schedule 
accordingly,  —  move  the  times  for  retiring  and  rising  for- 
ward, for  example. 

Anyone  who  feels  the  need  of  more  free  evenings  might 


____  ,F  vc  c    1  p-"it 


e«:TA  B*. 


202      PROBLEMS  INVOLVING  ECONOMY  OF  TIME 

manage  by  spending  a  part  of  Saturday  on  school  work  and 
doing  all  his  professional  study  during  the  summer." 

"What  about  Elsie  and  Bob?"  asks  one  of  the  scoffers. 
"They  probably  feel  capable  of  managing  their  partnership 
without  any  help  from  me,"  is  the  retort,  "but  before  I 
let  any  young  man  put  a  ring  on  my  finger,  he  has  got  to 
agree  to  spend  some  of  his  evenings  in  preparing  himself 
to  earn  a  good  income.  I  have  a  notion  that  one  could  learn 
to  exchange  all  the  endearments,  which  are  really  essential 
to  a  fair  state  of  bliss,  without  hanging  on  the  gate  until  mid- 
night every  day  in  the  week.  If  not,  teaching  ought  not 
to  be  allowed  to  interfere.  Get  out  the  wedding  invitations 
at  once ! " 

PROBLEM  140.  —  A  teacher  spends  most  of  the  time,  during 
the  first  few  days  of  a  school  year,  in  registering  pupils,  assigning 
seats,  obtaining  and  distributing  textbooks  and  supplies,  giving 
directions  in  regard  to  school  procedure,  dealing  with  delayed 
questions  of  promotion,  etc.  Children  have  very  little  to  occupy 
their  time.  She  appeals  to  them  frequently  to  be  quiet,  as  the 
disturbance  interferes  with  her  work.  When  she  is  ready  to 
begin  regular  teaching,  the  class  has  developed  some  bad  habits 
which  are  overcome  with  difficulty.  A  number  of  pupils  come 
to  school  a  week  late.  Parents  explain  that  it  seemed  un- 
necessary to  return  from  the  country  during  the  first  week,  be- 
cause the  children  said  that  they  would  not  lose  anything. 

At  a  teachers'  meeting  a  week  after  the  opening  of  school, 
a  discussion  arises  in  which  all  the  factors  mentioned  in  the 
problem  are  brought  out.  Many  of  the  teachers  are  fully 
aware  that  the  difficulties  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  chil- 
dren come  to  school  before  teachers  are  ready  for  them. 
"If  I  could  only  be  free,"  says  one,  "to  do  the  preliminary 
work  without  having  forty  squirming  children  to  distract 


THE   VALUE    OF    PLANNING  203 

me,  it  would  be  a  blessed  relief !     I  feel  as  if  all  the  good 
of  my  vacation  had  gone  in  a  week." 

Several  suggestions  are  offered.  One  teacher  proposes 
that,  as  soon  as  pupils  are  registered,  they  be  dismissed 
for  a  few  days.  Another  suggests  that  school  be  dismissed 
at  noon  during  the  first  week,  and  one  thinks  that  school 
ought  to  begin  a  week  later.  "The  children  would  lose 
nothing,"  she  says. 

The  principal  then  asks :  "What  is  our  chief  problem  - 
to  relieve  ourselves  of  annoyance,  or  to  make  the  first  week 
of  school  profitable  for  the  children?"  All  agree  that  the 
latter  is  the  more  important  consideration.  "How  can  we 
make  it  more  profitable?  Let  us  consider  the  suggestions 
that  have  been  made.  First,  suppose  that  we  dismiss  the 
pupils  after  registration.  What  would  they  gain  ?"  Some- 
one declares  that  they  would  not  get  into  bad  habits  through 
idleness  in  school.  They  would  realize  that  when  school  is 
in  session  it  means  real  work.  The  objection  is  made  that 
more  pupils  would  avoid  returning  for  registration  and  the 
irregularity  of  the  opening  days  would  merely  be  extended. 
Others  make  the  point  that  when  school  has  once  begun, 
to  have  all  the  children  turned  out  with  no  regular  occupa- 
tions would  be  demoralizing.  "Many  of  the  children  are 
bored  with  vacation  by  this  time,"  says  one,  "and  they 
want  to  get  back  to  school."  There  are  similar  objections 
to  the  other  proposals. 

The  principal  points  out  that  school  began  on  September 
8th  and  that  the  school  year  is  only  38  weeks  in  length. 
"It  seems  to  me,"  he  says,  "that  we  ought  not  to  reduce 
the  number  of  actual  school  clays,  but  to  find  a  way  of 
making  every  day  valuable.  Let  us  study  the  problem 


204  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING  ECONOMY   OF  TIME 

from  that  point  of  view.  What  changes  are  needed  to 
make  the  opening  days  as  profitable  for  the  pupils  as  the 
later  ones?"  Answers  come  thick  and  fast.  "They 
should  have  seats  assigned,  and  have  textbooks  and  supplies 
from  the  beginning."  "The  teacher  should  be  free  to 
give  her  whole  attention  to  teaching,  instead  of  making 
reports  and  stopping  every  few  minutes  to  talk  with  a 
messenger  from  the  office."  "All  pupils  ought  to  be  on 
hand  when  school  opens,  instead  of  straggling  in  all  the  way 
from  a  day  to  a  week  late."  "Pupils  who  have  been  absent 
from  examinations  at  the  end  of  the  previous  term  or  who 
have  been  making  up  work  during  the  summer  should  have 
been  tested  and  assigned  definitely  to  a  grade  when  school 
opens." 

Then  discussion  centers  upon  ways  and  means  of  accom- 
plishing the  desired  changes.  The  argument  points  to  the 
conclusion  that,  in  order  to  have  the  regular  work  begin 
as  soon  as  school  opens,  it  would  be  necessary  that  teachers 
should  assemble  at  least  one  day  earlier  than  usual.  Most 
of  the  teachers  find  it  very  difficult  to  admit  this  conclusion. 
They  agree  with  the  argument  until  the  final  step  is  reached 
but  the  idea  of  returning  from  vacation  earlier  than  usual 
conflicts  with  a  very  deep-seated  conviction.  They  immedi- 
ately turn  the  debate  in  the  opposite  direction,  starting  with 
the  usual  date  for  the  return  of  teachers  as  the  bed-rock  of 
their  faith,  and  attempting  to  modify  the  proposals  which 
had  at  first  been  acceptable.  One  suggests  that  they  get 
along  the  first  day  without  textbooks  and  supplies  and 
attend  to  this  matter  after  school.  Another  reverts  to  the 
proposal  to  close  school  in  the  afternoon  for  a  day  or  two. 
Several  argue  that  the  loss  of  time  during  the  opening  days 


THE   VALUE    OF   PLANNING  205 

has  been  much  exaggerated.  The  discussion  is  back  at 
the  starting  point,  but  the  center  of  attention  has  shifted 
from  the  difficulties  of  the  first  days  of  school  to  the  danger 
of  losing  a  day  or  two  of  vacation. 

The  principal  realizes  that  there  is  no  chance  of  obtain- 
ing a  calm,  well-considered  decision.  So  he  says:  "We  do 
not  need  to  decide  the  question  now.  I  am  not  disposed 
to  insist  upon  a  change  from  the  usual  plan  until  there  is 
a  general  agreement  in  favor  of  it.  We  all  want  to  do  what- 
ever we  can  to  improve  the  school  and  I  have  no  doubt  that 
we  shall  in  time  find  the  right  solution.  Next  spring,  be- 
fore school  closes  we  can  decide  what  to  do." 

When  the  question  is  reopened  in  June,  the  attitude  is 
practically  the  same  as  before.  So  the  principal  cuts  short 
the  discussion  and  says:  "I  think  that  some  experimental 
evidence  would  help  us.  I  should  be  glad  to  cooperate 
with  any  of  you  who  would  like  to  try  the  plan  of  making 
as  much  preparation  as  possible  before  the  opening  of 
school." 

Three  teachers  who  volunteer  to  take  part  in  the  experi- 
ment agree  to  return  two  days  before  school  opens  and  to 
do  some  thinking  on  the  matter  during  the  summer.  One 
of  these  teachers,  Miss  A.,  spends  a  couple  of  days  shortly 
before  her  return  in  planning  lessons  for  the  first  week. 
She  sends  for  copies  of  two  new  textbooks  which  are  to  be 
introduced  and  makes  herself  thoroughly  familiar  with 
them.  She  collects  illustrative  material,  makes  notes  oi 
some  of  her  own  vacation  experiences,  which  will  interest 
the  children,  and  plans  lessons  in  which  they  can  tell  about 
their  own  doings  during  the  summer.  She  visualizes  the 
class  as  it  will  assemble  on  the  opening  day,  and  tries  to 


206  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING  ECONOMY   OF   TIME 

devise  plans  which  will  enable  every  child  to  be  profitably 
employed  from  the  moment  when  he  arrives  at  school. 
She  writes  to  two  of  her  new  pupils  asking  them  if  they 
would  like  to  help  her  in  making  preparations.  She  noti- 
fies children  whose  promotion  is  doubtful  when  to  report 
for  examination,  and  asks  the  principal  to  insert  notices 
in  the  newspapers  requesting  pupils  who  are  to  attend  the 
school  for  the  first  time  to  report  on  a  certain  day  for 
registration  and  assignment  to  grade. 

The  three  teachers  meet  the  principal  at  the  appointed 
time  and  discuss  details  of  organization.  The  teachers 
receive  their  keys  and  their  allowances  of  books  and  supplies. 
Miss  A.  promptly  sets  to  work  the  pupils  who  have  examina- 
tions to  take  and  assists  in  the  registration  and  assignment 
of  new  pupils.  With  the  assistance  of  the  children  who  have 
come  to  help,  she  labels  and  numbers  the  new  books,  arranges 
equipment,  mounts  pictures  on  the  bulletin  board,  and 
transfers  the  classroom  library  from  the  closet  to  shelves 
accessible  to  the  children.  She  arranges  to  have  her  win- 
dow-boxes filled  with  plants,  and  has  the  janitor  replace 
some  broken  inkwells  and  repair  a  window  shade  which 
had  been  overlooked.  A  set  of  books  is  placed  on  each 
desk,  pencils  are  sharpened,  and  other  supplies  are  made 
ready  for  rapid  distribution.  A  seating  plan  is  made  and  a 
card  bearing  the  pupil's  name  and  the  number  of  his  coat- 
hook  is  placed  on  each  desk.  A  form  for  registration  and 
textbook  record  and  a  program  of  recitations  are  written 
on  the  blackboard,  also  the  following  notice : 

"First  find  your  desk  and  coat-hook.  Afterward,  until  the 
bell  rings,  you  may  talk  quietly  with  one  another  or  look  over 
your  new  books." 


THE   VALUE   OF   PLANNING  2Oy 

On  the  opening  day,  the  teacher  stands  at  the  door  of  the 
classroom  and  has  a  pleasant  word  for  each  arrival  as  she 
shakes  hands.  She  has  made  herself  familiar  with  the 
names  and  has  acquired  a  good  deal  of  information  about 
individuals  from  their  previous  teacher,  so  when  the  bell 
rings  she  knows  who  is  present  and  can  call  almost  every 
pupil  by  name  without  reference  to  the  seating  plan.  She 
introduces  the  new  pupils  to  an  assistant  who  stands  with 
her  at  the  door  and  who,  in  turn,  introduces  them  to  the 
other  pupils  and  helps  them  to  find  their  seats. 

After  the  opening  exercises  and  a  few  words  of  greeting, 
the  teacher  says  :  "We  are  going  to  try  to  make  this  one  of 
the  best  days  of  the  year.  Some  of  us  have  been  getting 
everything  ready  so  we  can  start  right  to  work."  Then  she 
explains  briefly  about  the  registration  and  textbook  record 
and  has  pupils  distribute  paper  and  pencils.  In  a  few 
minutes  the  records  are  collected  and  the  first  lesson  begins. 

The  teacher  exerts  herself  to  make  the  work  interesting 
and  the  pupils  respond  with  enthusiasm.  At  the  close  of 
the  day,  she  makes  her  reports  to  the  office  and  goes  home 
at  four  o'clock,  leaving  most  of  the  teachers  examining  pupils, 
or  working  on  reports,  or  waiting  in  line  to  see  the  principal. 
By  previous  arrangement,  parents  of  pupils  in  the  classes 
of  the  three  teachers  were  notified  early  in  the  summer  that 
all  preparations  would  be  made  in  advance  and  were  asked 
to  cooperate  in  the  effort  of  the  teachers  to  make  the  first 
week  of  school  as  valuable  as  any  other  week.  The  result 
is  that,  in  Miss  A.'s  class,  all  but  one  pupil  are  on  tune. 
When  he  appears  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  week,  he 
soon  finds  that  he  is  a  fish  out  of  water.  He  stays  after 
school,  appeals  to  his  parents  for  help,  and  gets  more  and 


208  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING   ECONOMY   OF   TIME 

more  discouraged.  When  the  first  monthly  report  is 
received,  his  parents  engage  a  private  tutor.  His  mother 
confides  to  Miss  A.  that  the  youngster  declares  that  he 
will  not  go  away  at  all  next  summer  unless  his  father  prom- 
ises to  bring  him  back  before  the  opening  of  school. 

At  the  first  general  teachers'  meeting,  the  principal  re- 
fers to  the  experiment  and  asks  the  three  teachers  to  relate 
their  experiences.  They  are  so  enthusiastic  and  the  pleas- 
ure which  they  have  taken  in  their  work  is  so  obvious  to 
those  who  have  been  going  through  the  harassing  task  of 
getting  classes  into  working  order,  that  most  of  the  teachers 
agree  that  all  should  return  early.  The  principal  says: 
"I  have  had  to  begin  school  twice  this  year,  but  it  has  been 
worth  the  trouble.  I  see,  as  I  never  did  before,  that  when 
several  people  have  to  do  a  piece  of  work  together,  the  only 
way  to  economize  time  and  get  the  best  service  from  every- 
body is  to  have  preparations  made  in  advance  so  that  each 
one  can  go  to  work  as  soon  as  he  reports  for  duty." 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  ECONOMY  OF  TIME 

1.  The  teacher's  aim  should  be  to  secure  the  maximum  of 
accomplishment  in  a  given  time  in  carrying  out  the  purpose  of 
education.     This  involves 

a.  Keeping  the  purpose  in  mind 

b.  Economy  of  the  teacher's  time 

c.  Economy  of  the  pupil's  time 

2.  It  is  necessary  to  concentrate  attention  on  the  important 
things,  to  give  less  attention  to  the  less  important,  and  to  elim- 
inate the  unnecessary. 

3.  For  economy  of  time,  as  well  as  for  the  educational  effect, 
it  is  important  that  each  pupil  should,  as  nearly  as  possible,  put 
forth  his  best  effort.     This  will  require  differentiation  in  the  work 
assigned.     Mass  teaching  encourages  habits  of  mental  laziness 
in  pupils. 


PROBLEMS   INVOLVING   ECONOMY   OF   TIME  2OQ 

4.  Teachers  should  not  do  work  which  pupils  can  do  with  no 
loss  to  themselves.     Details  of  classroom  management  should 
be  assigned  to  pupils  in  accordance  with  a  system  which  will 
require  little  or  no  attention  from  the  teacher.     She  should  save 
herself  for  more  important  work. 

5.  Economy  of  time  requires  system.     One  should  have  a 
definite  time  for  important  duties  such  as  preparation  of  work, 
professional  study,  cultural  activities,  recreation,  exercise. 

6.  In  order  to  save  time  regular  duties  should  be  reduced  to 
habits.     One  must  live  up  to  one's  program. 

7.  In  activities  involving  the  participation  of  several  people, 
time  will  be  wasted  unless  a  plan  is  developed  in  advance.     Pu- 
pils should  never  be  idle  while  the  teacher  is  doing  work  which 
only  she  can  do.     Such  work  should  be  done  outside  of  class 
time. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  141.  —  A  teacher  feels  that  it  is  necessary  to  assign 
some  written  work  every  day.  so  as  to  be  sure  that  all  pupils 
work.  As  a  result  he  is  always  swamped  with  papers  and 
usually  several  days  behind  in  marking  them. 

PROBLEM  142.  —  A  teacher  works  hard  in  preparing  lessons  and 
in  teaching.  She  realizes  that  her  pupils  are  putting  forth 
little  effort  during  class  periods  except  during  the  few  minutes 
when  they  are  reciting.  She  is  aware  that  there  is  little  demand 
for  individual  effort  when  the  pupil's  part  is  to  listen  to  the 
recitations  of  others  or  to  follow  the  book  while  other  pupils 
read,  but  does  not  see  how  to  get  more  individual  activity. 

PROBLEM  143.  —  A  teacher  plans  to  start  for  home  on  the 
evening  of  the  last  day  of  school.  In  order  to  be  ready,  she  be- 
gins collecting  books  several  days  ahead,  gives  pupils  written 
work  while  she  works  on  reports.  Some  of  these  are  hurried. 
Books  and  materials  are  put  away  without  careful  arrangement. 
She  would  like  to  leave  things  in  better  order  but  can't  take 
time  to  do  it,  now  that  she  has  her  reservation.  She  plans  to 
return  early  and  fix  things  up.  Many  children  are  absent  during 
the  last  few  days.  One  parent  explains  that,  since  examinations 
are  ove-,  there  seemed  to  be  no  need  of  keeping  the  child  in 
school  and  arrangements  had  been  made  to  go  away  on  a  vacation. 
K.  T.  PKOB.  — 14 


210  PROBLEMS   INVOLVING  ECONOMY   OF  TIME 

PROBLEM  144.  —  A  primary  teacher  organizes  her  class  in  two 
sections  for  a  part  of  the  work.  While  she  teaches  one  class  in 
reading,  the  other  copies  arithmetic  examples  from  the  board, 
such  as  3  +  2=?  5  +  2=?  etc.  Some  pupils  finish  the 
work  very  quickly  and  get  into  mischief.  Many  make  mis- 
takes. 

PROBLEM  145.  —  A  teacher  is  made  chairman  of  a  committee 
to  plan  and  carry  out  an  exhibit  of  school  work.  He  recalls 
•  that  as  a  member  of  the  committee,  the  previous  year,  he  felt 
'that  a  great  deal  of  time  was  wasted.  At  the  first  meeting  of 
the  committee,  the  chairman  did  not  seem  to  have  any  very 
definite  ideas,  and  as  none  of  the  members  had  made  any  prep- 
aration, much  time  was  consumed  in  lengthy  and  rather  indefinite 
discussion.  No  definite  duties  were  assigned  the  committee 
members  and  he  himself  had  felt  obliged  to  ask  frequently  what 
he  was  expected  to  do.  These  requests  had  apparently  worried 
the  chairman  and  resulted  in  assignment  of  some  trivial  tasks, 
some  of  which  proved  to  be  unnecessary.  Several  members  of 
the  committee  did  nothing  at  all  and  finally  absented  themselves 
from  committee  meetings.  Some  plans  which  were  agreed  upon 
miscarried  because  directions  to  the  teachers  were  misunder- 
stood or  were  issued  too  late.  The  chairman  worked  so  hard 
that  she  was  sick  for  a  week  after  the  exhibit.  She  felt  that  the 
other  members  of  the  committee  were  not  supporting  her,  while 
they  felt  that  the  affair  was  poorly  managed.  The  new  chair- 
man determines  to  profit  by  last  year's  experience. 

PROBLEM  146.  —  Once  during  the  year,  each  class  presents  an 
assembly  program  to  the  school.  Dates  are  assigned  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year.  One  teacher,  who  is  asked  to  have  a 
dramatic  exercise,  is  disturbed  because  she  has  never  done  such 
a  thing  before.  It  will  mean  making  costumes  and  decorations, 
and  drilling  children  in  their  parts.  Some  of  the  teachers  have 
worked  late  at  night  for  a  week  or  two  before  the  performance  in 
order  to  get  costumes  finished,  and  have  complained  that  the 
preparation  took  a  great  deal  of  time  from  the  regular  work  of 
the  class. 

PROBLEM  147.  —  A  teacher  is  constantly  directing  her  class. 
In  distributing  material  and  collecting  it,  assigning  lessons, 


PROBLEMS   INVOLVING  ECONOMY   OF   TIME  211 

dismissing  the  class,  and  conducting  the  lessons,  she  gives  orders 
and  is  alert  to  see  that  they  are  carried  out.  She  feels  that  the 
class  needs  constant  supervision  and  she  is  nervous  whenever 
she  has  to  leave  the  room  for  a  moment.  She  drags  herself  to 
school  even  when  she  ought  to  be  in  bed,  because  she  knows 
that  the  class  will  go  to  pieces  if  she  is  absent.  Her  teaching 
is  not  very  good  because  the  division  which  is  engaged  in  "  seat- 
work  "  claims  so  much  of  her  attention,  and  marking  papers 
leaves  her  little  time  for  preparation. 

PROBLEM  148.  —  A  high  school  teacher  of  English  is  discouraged 
by  the  grind  of  marking  compositions.  She  always  has  a  great 
pile  of  papers  to  go  over  and  is  frequently  several  days  behind. 
Her  conscience  will  not  permit  her  to  allow  papers  to  go  un- 
marked or  to  overlook  any  errors.  Pupils  keep  making  the 
same  errors. 

PROBLEM  149.  —  Teachers  are  required  to  read  at  least  two 
professional  books  each  year  and  report  upon  them.  A  teacher 
hands  in  voluminous  abstracts  of  her  two  books.  The  work 
has  cost  her  many  weary  hours  and  yet  the  superintendent  is 
not  satisfied.  He  wants  to  know  what  important  new  ideas  she 
has  gained  which  she  can  use.  He  asks  what  permanent  value 
the  written  abstracts  have,  and  asks  her  to  try,  when  she  makes 
her  next  report,  to  get  full  value  from  her  reading  in  less  time. 

PROBLEM  150.  —  A  mathematics  teacher  has  the  practice  of 
having  pupils  do  all  the  examples  in  the  book,  and  having  those 
assigned  for  a  lesson  put  on  the  blackboard  next  day  and  cor- 
rected. He  is  unable  to  finish  the  work  assigned  for  the  term. 
When  it  is  suggested  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  every  example, 
he  says  that  the  students  apparently  need  more  practice  rather 
than  less. 

PROBLEM  151. — How  would  one  define  100  per  cent  efficiency 
for  a  teacher,  in  so  far  as  the  time  element  is  concerned? 

REFERENCES 

Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  Chapter  IX. 
Sechrist,  F.  K.,  Education  and  the  General  Welfare,  Chapter  XVIII. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,and  Engelhardt,  N.,  The  Classroom  Teacher. 


CHAPTER  X 
PROBLEMS  OF  HEALTH 

HYGIENE  AT  SCHOOL  AND  AT  HOME  ;  THE  TEACHER'S 
RESPONSIBILITY;  COOPERATION  WITH  PARENTS;  THE 
INFLUENCE  OF  EXAMPLE 

PROBLEM  152.  —  A  teacher  is  annoyed  by  the  insistence  of  the 
superintendent  upon  what  she  regards  as  petty  details.  Almost 
every  time  that  he  visits  her  room,  he  looks  at  the  thermometer, 
then  closes  the  steam-valves  or  opens  a  window.  The  shades 
are  never  adjusted  to  suit  him.  He  frequently  points  out  to 
her  a  pupil's  seat  which  is  too  high  or  too  low.  When  she  re- 
ceives a  notice,  calling  upon  teachers  to  inspect  their  pupils  care- 
fully at  the  beginning  of  each  session,  and  to  send  to  the  office 
any  child  who  shows  signs  of  illness,  she  is  ready  to  resign. 
"  Teachers  have  enough  to  do,"  she  exclaims,  "  without  playing 
janitor  and  nurse." 

IN  spite  of  her  annoyance,  the  teacher  never  purposely  neg- 
lects any  of  the  matters  which  give  the  superintendent  such 
concern,  but  she  finds  it  almost  impossible  to  keep  them  in 
mind.  She  frequently  determines,  when  she  draws  the 
shades  over  the  windows  in  the  morning,  to  shut  out  the 
glare  of  direct  sunlight,  that  she  will  adjust  them  as  soon 
as  the  sun  is  high  enough  to  leave  the  desks  on  the  farther 
side  of  the  room  in  shadow,  and  to  roll  them  up  entirely 
the  moment  the  sun  passes  behind  the  end  of  the  building. 
Nevertheless  she  usually  becomes  so  absorbed  in  teaching 
that  she  fails  to  notice  the  condition  of  light  in  the  room 
until  long  after  the  proper  time  for  adjustment  has  passed 
and  not  infrequently  the  shades  remain  throughout  the 


HYGIENE  AT   SCHOOL  AND   AT  HOME  213 

day  as  she  placed  them  when  she  arrived  in  the  morning. 
She  plans  to  have  the  seat  of  every  new  pupil  adjusted 
on  the  day  when  he  enters  the  class,  but  more  often  than 
not  she  forgets  to  do  so.  Now  and  then  she  calls  upon  the 
class  to  straighten  up  but  most  of  the  time  she  fails  to 
observe  that  some  individuals  maintain  bad  postures 
habitually.  Again  and  again,  she  realizes  at  the  end  of  the 
day  that  she  has  forgotten  to  make  an  inspection  of  the 
class  at  the  beginning  of  the  session. 

A  little  sister  who  is  the  idol  of  her  heart  is  in  the  eighth 
grade.  The  child  is  not  strong  but  is  passionately  devoted 
to  her  books.  She  doesn't  care  for  active  play  but  loves  to 
read,  curled  up  in  an  arm-chair.  She  has  been  ailing  for 
some  time  and  it  is  finally  decided  to  take  her  to  a  specialist. 
When  the  teacher  reaches  home  on  the  day  of  the  examina- 
tion, her  mother  meets  her  with  a  grave  face.  The  doctor 
has  found  that  the  child  has  a  serious  curvature  of  the  spine. 
It  will  take  a  long  time  to  correct  the  trouble. 

"But  what  is  the  reason  for  it?"  our  teacher  asks,  as 
soon  as  she  recovers  from  the  first  shock.  "We  have 
always  been  so  careful  of  her!"  "The  doctor  says  that 
cases  like  this  are  not  at  all  unusual  with  school  children," 
the  mother  replies.  "Edith  has  been  growing  very  fast 
and  her  habit  of  sitting  in  a  cramped  posture  has  caused  the 
bones  to  become  distorted  and  this  has  interfered  with  the 
normal  action  of  some  of  the  internal  organs.  If  she  had 
been  active  and  spent  much  of  her  time  in  vigorous  play, 
the  effect  of  unhygienic  posture  in  school  might  have  been 
counteracted,  but  now  he  says  that  we  must  not  think  of 
allowing  her  to  go  to  school  for  a  year  or  two." 

The  child  is  broken-hearted  and  the  older  sister  is  both 


214  PROBLEMS    OF   HEALTH 

grief-stricken  and  angry.  "What  is  the  use,"  she  demands, 
"of  compulsory  education  which  ruins  a  child's  health? 
I  don't  care  whether  she  ever  knows  anything  or  not,  if  she 
is  only  well  and  happy." 

After  a  time  a  saner  mood  comes  to  her,  and  she  begins 
to  study  both  sides  of  the  question.  She  knows,  of  course, 
that  children  must  go  to  school.  Indeed,  the  real  blow 
to  this  little  sister  of  hers  is  not  the  thought,  of  suffering, 
but  the  realization  that  she  is  to  be  deprived  of  her  chief 
interest  and  that  she  must  drop  behind  her  class. 

"But  the  schools  must  take  care  of  the  children's 
health,"  our  teacher  exclaims.  "That  must  be  the  first 
consideration.  Teachers  ought  to  be  trained  in  hygiene 
and  physical  education,  even  if  they  have  to  sacrifice 
scholarship."  Then  it  comes  over  her,  all  at  once,  that 
she  herself  has  been  a  sinner.  She  sees  what  the  super- 
intendent has  had  in  mind  in  fussing  about  temperature, 
ventilation,  and  the  adjustment  of  seats. 

The  teacher  goes  back  to  her  work,  a  different  person. 
She  no  longer  has  to  force  herself  to  remember  the  regula- 
tions about  health.  She  has  become  an  enthusiast.  She 
feels  her  responsibility  keenly  and,  from  that  time  on, 
the  first  thing  she  tries  to  find  out  when  a  pupil  enters  her 
class  is  not  his  ability  in  arithmetic  or  spelling  but  the  con- 
dition of  his  eyes,  his  habits  of  standing  and  sitting,  whether 
he  is  well  nourished,  and  whether  he  is  afflicted  with  ade- 
noids. 

"I'll  try,"  she  says  to  herself,  "to  see  that  the  minds 
of  these  children  have  a  chance  to  develop  ;  but  whatever 
else  I  do,  I  am  going  to  see  that  there  is  a  fair  deal  for 
their  bodies." 


COOPERATION  WITH  PARENTS  21$ 

PROBLEM  153. 

Miss  D. : 

Kindly  stop  telling  the  children  to  keep  their  windows 
open  at  night.  I  know  better  than  you  do  how  to  take  care  of 
children.  My  advice  is  that  you  attend  to  your  own  work  and 
not  meddle  with  people's  home  affairs. 

Yours  truly, 

Margaret  Jones 

Miss  D.  is  naturally  indignant  when  she  reads  this  rude 
note.  She  crumples  it  into  a  ball  and  flings  it  into  the 
waste  basket  with  unnecessary  force.  "All  right!"  she 
snaps  to  an  imaginary  audience,  "there'll  be  no  more  med- 
dling from  me  !  Meddling,  indeed  !  That's  what  a  teacher 
gets  for  concerning  herself  about  the  children's  welfare. 
I'll  stick  to  routine  lessons.  If  parents  insist  on  living  in 
the  dark  ages,  let  them  take  the  consequences."  Without 
deliberate  intention,  she  is  curt  and  haughty,  for  a  day  or 
two,  in  her  treatment  of  the  little  Jones  girl. 

This  solution  of  the  problem  does  not,  however,  bring 
satisfaction  to  the  teacher.  She  is  too  deeply  interested 
in  the  health  of  her  pupils  to  calmly  ignore  their  lives 
outside  of  school  when  she  knows  that  many  of  them  are 
forming  habits  which  are  bound  to  interfere  with  proper 
physical  development.  As  this  aspect  of  her  hasty,  half- 
intended  resolution  impresses  itself  on  her  mind,  she  says  to 
herself:  "  You're  a  nice  kind  of  teacher!  nursing  a  grudge 
against  an  ignorant,  tradition-bound  woman,  and  taking 
it  out  on  the  children  !  You've  been  steering  in  the  wrong 
direction,  just  as  we  did  when  we  lost  our  bearings  in  the 
fog  last  summer.  Now  get  back  on  the  course.  Your  aim 
is  to  help  these  boys  and  girls  to  develop  strong,  healthy 
bodies  and  you  must  not  allow  yourself  to  be  diverted." 


2l6  PROBLEMS   OF  HEALTH 

She  muses  on  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  and  her 
new  elation  begins  to  subside.  "What  can  a  teacher  do," 
she  sighs,  "if  the  parents  refuse  to  cooperate?  And  when 
they  not  only  refuse  to  help  but  actually  combat  or  ridicule 
the  ideas  which  we  try  to  implant,  it  seems  hopeless."  Then 
her  righting  blood  begins  to  flow  again  and  she  declares : 
"We've  simply  got  to  have  cooperation.  If  parents  have 
to  be  educated,  so  be  it.  We  must  find  the  way.  Here's 
where  we  begin  to  train  Mrs.  Jones  and  Miss  D.  to  work  in 
double  harness." 

For  several  months  she  devotes  herself  to  what  she  calls 
"the  Jones  Plot."  She  sets  her  heart  upon  success  and 
refuses  to  be  discouraged  by  rebuffs  or  unrewarded  efforts. 
A  genuine  interest  in  the  child  soon  causes  the  latter  to 
respond  with  warm  affection,  but  for  a  long  time  the  mother 
resists  her  tentative  efforts.  She  schools  herself  to  be  pa- 
tient and  avoid  spoiling  her  plan  by  undue  precipitancy. 
The  battle  becomes  a  stealthy  siege  rather  than  an  assault. 
One  or  two  brief  illnesses  which  keep  the  child  at  home  give 
the  teacher  occasion  for  calling  at  the  house.  At  the  second 
visit,  the  youngster's  entreaties  result  in  an  invitation  to 
come  in.  The  bond  of  affection  between  the  child  and  the 
teacher,  the  latter's  unfailing  good  nature,  and  a  consistent 
avoidance  of  any  expression  of  controversial  opinions  gradu- 
ally break  down  the  wall  of  reserve.  When  she  is  invited  to 
dinner,  the  teacher  learns  that  there  are  other  reasons  than 
an  unventilated  sleeping  room  to  account  for  the  puny 
development  of  her  little  friend.  Finally  the  resistance 
weakens  to  the  point  where  the  mother  begins  to  seek  the 
teacher's  advice.  By  that  time,  however,  the  latter  has 
become  so  cautious  that  she  is  able  to  refrain  from  pressing 


THE  TEACHER'S  RESPONSIBILITY  217 

her  advantage  too  far,  leaving  it  to  the  enemy  to  make  the 
overtures  for  peace,  and  limiting  herself  to  a  cordial  re- 
sponse. In  the  end,  the  long  campaign  not  only  succeeds 
in  opening  the  windows  but  causes  an  improvement  in 
diet  and  establishes  a  friendship  which  leads  naturally  to  a 
fruitful  cooperation  in  the  interest  of  the  child's  health. 

PROBLEM  154.  —  A, teacher,  who  is  admired  by  her  class,  teaches 
the  regular  work  in  hygiene.  The  pupils  recite  glibly  on  the 
necessity  of  plenty  of  sleep  and  exercise,  the  importance  of  warm 
clothing  in  winter,  and  the  injury  caused  by  stylish  shoes.  The 
teacher,  however,  likes  pretty  clothes,  wears  very  thin  garments, 
even  in  the  coldest  weather,  and  dainty  shoes  with  pointed  toes 
and  high  heels.  She  doesn't  get  as  much  sleep  as  the  hygiene 
book  calls  for  and  doesn't  enjoy  any  vigorous  exercise  except 
dancing.  The  children  don't  know  this,  of  course,  but  they  do 
know  that  she  is  sick  rather  frequently. 

The  teacher  first  becomes  conscious  of  the  problem  when 
one  of  the  girls  in  her  class  appears  in  a  gauzy  waist,  with 
her  hair  done  up  in  poor  imitation  of  the  latest  style.  The 
costume  seems  to  her  very  inappropriate  for  a  school  girl 
and,  when  several  other  girls  do  their  best  to  follow  suit, 
one  of  them  wearing  high  heeled  pumps,  probably  borrowed 
from  her  older  sister,  the  teacher  feels  that  it  is  time  for 
action.  She  therefore  calls  on  the  mother  of  one  of  the 
children  and,  as  tactfully  as  she  can,  suggests  that  Helen's 
premature  assumption  of  the  role  of  debutante  is  having  a 
bad  effect  upon  the  class.  The  mother  is  half  provoked  and 
half  amused.  "Don't  you  know  what  is  the  matter  with 
the  girls? "  she  exclaims.  "Whom  do  you  suppose  they  are 
trying  to  copy?"  "Some  movie  actress,  I  suppose,"  the 
teacher  ventures.  At  that  the  mother  bursts  into  a  real 
laugh.  "My  dear  young  lady,"  she  says,  "if  you  will 


2l8  PROBLEMS    OF   HEALTH 

look  in  your  mirror  —  a  long  mirror  —  you  will  see  where 
they  got  their  model.  The  imitation  is  very  poor,  I  admit, 
but  you  are  the  pattern  of  those  children.  Their  end  and 
aim  is  to  be  like  you.  All  you  have  to  do,  to  make  them  wear 
anything  or  do  anything  that  you  wish,  is  to  set  the  ex- 
ample." 

The  teacher  is  mortified  and  very  much  upset.  "The 
impudent  little  minxes ! "  she  sputters  as  she  walks  home. 
''What  business  have  fourteen-year-old  children  to  try  to  copy 
my  clothes  ?  Must  grown  women  wear  pinafores  to  induce 
infants  to  dress  properly?  I'll  take  that  nonsense  out  of 
them  ! "  She  begins  to  rehearse  the  speech  which  she  will 
make  to  the  girls  the  next  morning.  "You  must  not  expect 
to  do  just  what  grown  people  do.  They  can  do  things 
safely  which  would  be  harmful  for  girls  of  your  age.  You 
look  silly  when  you  try  to  be  grown-ups.  You  ought  to 
wear  good  warm  clothing,  and  broad,  low-heeled  shoes,  and 
you  ought  to  go  to  bed  regularly  by  half  past  eight  or 
nine.  What  will  become  of  our  attendance  record,  if  you 
don't  take  care  of  yourselves?" 

As  she  makes  her  silent  speech  with  the  faces  of  the  girls 
in  her  mind's  eye,  she  imagines  their  reaction.  She  feels 
that  she  must  be  convincing  and  somehow  she  is  conscious 
of  flaws  in  her  argument.  She  knows  that  the  girls  will 
listen  to  whatever  she  says  without  offering  to  dispute  her 
statements,  but  as  she  delivers  her  imaginary  lecture,  she 
is  interested  in  what  is  going  on  in  their  minds,  and  seems 
to  hear  their  objections  as  if  they  were  putting  their  thoughts 
into  words.  "Why  will  thin  clothes  in  winter  do  us  any 
more  harm  than  they  will  you?"  "Are  high  heels  and 
narrow  toes  really  good  for  young  ladies?"  "Do  you 


THE  TEACHER'S  RESPONSIBILITY  219 

always  go  to  bed  early  enough  to  get  plenty  of  sleep?" 
"How  about  your  own  attendance?" 

She  tries  to  put  these  objections  out  of  her  mind  but  they 
keep  recurring.  "I  guess  I'm  not  cut  out  for  a  teacher," 
she  thinks.  "I  can't  reconcile  myself  to  going  to  bed  with 
the  birds  and  dressing  like  a  nun.  I  think  a  girl  of  my  age 
is  entitled  to  some  fun.  Guess  I'll  be  a  stenographer. 
Apparently  they  don't  have  to  pose  as  early  Christian 
martyrs." 

In  the  evening  she  meets  one  of  the  older  teachers,  a 
woman  whom  she  respects  highly  and  who  has  often  helped 
her  solve  her  teaching  problems.  She  naturally  pours 
out  her  tale  to  this  friend  and  tentatively  advances  her 
notion  that  she  is  in  the  wrong  vocation.  The  older  woman 
smiles  and  says:  "You  might  change  if  you  were  selfish 
enough  to  put  mere  pleasure  and  freedom  of  responsibility 
ahead  of  a  really  unusual  opportunity  for  service,  but  you 
won't.  You  have  a  gift,  which  most  teachers  would  give 
anything  to  possess,  —  the  power  of  winning  the  admira- 
tion of  children  and  immediate  response  to  your  suggestions. 
This  gives  you  the  opportunity  to  influence  children  to 
an  unusual  degree.  You  have  no  right  to  refuse  that 
opportunity  even  if  you  wished  to  do  so,  which  I  doubt." 

This  idea  dominates  our  teacher's  reflections  for  the 
next  few  hours  and  before  she  goes  to  sleep  she  has  made 
her  decision.  The  next  day,  instead  of  calling  the  girls 
for  the  contemplated  lecture,  she  appears  in  the  feminine 
counterpart  of  a  business  suit,  with  the  only  pair  of  low- 
heeled  shoes  which  she  possesses.  She  notices  with  amuse- 
ment the  discomfiture  of  the  girls  who  are  trying  to  be  in 
style.  She  does  not  need  to  say  a  word  about  the  inappro- 


220  PROBLEMS    OF   HEALTH 

priateness  of  their  garb.  The  offending  garments  soon 
disappear. 

The  teacher  proposes  that  the  class  make  a  special  effort 
this  month  to  keep  fit  and  see  if  they  cannot  improve  the 
attendance  record,  saying  that  she  herself  is  going  to  be 
very  careful  about  sleep  and  exercise.  She  has  no  diffi- 
culty in  arousing  an  enthusiastic  interest,  since  she  is 
interested  herself.  The  ideal  of  vigorous  health  becomes 
strongly  impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Under  the 
leadership  of  the  teacher  a  troop  of  girl  scouts  is  organized 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  she  realizes  that  she  has  never 
been  happier  nor  in  better  health.  Curiously  enough  her 
friends  seem  to  find  her  as  attractive  as  ever.  She  begins 
to  think  that  popularity  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  clothes. 

PROBLEM  155.  —  A  teacher  is  dissatisfied  with  the  results  of 
her  teaching  of  hygiene.  The  pupils  learn  the  subject  matter 
given  in  the  textbook  and  can  quote  piously  the  precepts  of 
health,  but  their  own  habits  seem  to  be  as  unsanitary  as  ever, 
and  there  is  no  apparent  diminution  in  the  amount  of  sickness. 

The  teacher  tries  the  effect  of  admonition.  When  she 
sees  children  bolting  their  lunches  and  rushing  out  to  the 
playground,  or  coming  into  the  room  on  a  rainy  morning 
with  wet  feet  or  drenched  clothing  and  trying  to  avoid 
detection  for  fear  of  being  sent  home  for  dry  garments, 
she  preaches  little  sermons.  The  pupils  listen  apparently 
but  without  much  interest.  Few  of  them  seem  to  take  her 
words  to  heart.  The  candy  stores  and  soda  counters 
continue  to  do  a  thriving  business.  Pupils  read  with  a 
glare  of  sunlight  on  their  books  and  eat  lunches  with  un- 
washed hands  unless  she  takes  the  responsibility  of  direct- 
ing their  actions,  and  then  obey  rather  impatiently.  She 


THE    INFLUENCE    OF    EXAMPLE  221 

has  to  be  on  the  watch  to  prevent  some  individuals  from 
wearing  rubbers  or  overshoes  throughout  a  school  session. 
Many  have  dirty  teeth  and  do  all  they  can  to  avoid  going 
to  a  dentist  even  when  the  medical  inspector  reports  the 
need  of  immediate  attention.  Not  infrequently  she  notices 
festering  cuts  and  bruises  covered  with  dirty  bandages  or 
not  protected  at  all.  Children  rarely  remember,  when 
coughing  or  sneezing,  that  there  is  danger  of  giving  others 
a  cold  like  their  own.  On  attending  a  football  game,  she 
sees  boys  drinking  from  a  common  cup,  although  they  have 
been  used  to  drinking  fountains  in  the  school  and  know 
their  purpose  perfectly.  Most  of  the  players  throw  them- 
selves on  the  ground  during  intermissions  although  reeking 
with  perspiration.  Neither  talks  to  the  class  nor  personal 
advice  seems  to  have  any  appreciable  effect. 

Relating  her  experiences  to  a  group  of  friends,  our  teacher 
says:  "Knowledge  may  be  power,  but  power  which  is  not 
properly  applied  is  of  very  little  use.  I  wonder  if  it  is 
possible  to  educate  children  so  that  they  will  live  up  to  their 
light,  when  their  natural  inclinations  point  in  the  other 
direction." 

"Why  should  you  expect  more  of  children  than  of 
adults?  "one  of  the  group  inquires.  "Don't  we  all  continue 
to  drink  coffee  at  midnight,  neglect  to  take  regular  exer- 
cise, sit  up  until  3.00  A.M.  to  finish  an  exciting  book,  and 
eat  indigestible  food?  Most  people  do  what  they  like  to 
do,  regardless  of  the  well-known  laws  of  health,  until  they 
are  dreadfully  frightened  by  a  narrow  escape  from  death, 
or  knowledge  that  they  are  afflicted  with  disease.  Even 
then  many  take  occasional  risks  when  the  effect  of  the 
first  shock  has  passed  away." 


222  PROBLEMS    OF   HEALTH 

"That's  just  the  point,"  our  teacher  declares.  "As  a 
race  we  are  wasting  our  physical  resources.  That  is  the 
reason,  I  take  it,  why  hygiene  has  been  made  a  part  of  the 
course  of  study.  Some  people  realize  that  the  public  wel- 
fare is  threatened  by  the  prevalence  of  unnecessary  sick- 
ness, premature  decadence,  and  untimely  death.  There- 
fore they  have  sought  to  combat  the  danger  by  educating 
the  young.  Apparently  they  have  made  the  mistake  of 
supposing  that  ill-health  is  chiefly  due  to  ignorance.  I 
think  we  have  evidence  enough  to  prove  that  mere  knowl- 
edge of  hygiene  will  not  solve  the  problem.  Unless  we 
can  learn  how  to  make  people  want  to  be  strong  and  get 
them  to  develop  habits  that  are  consistent  with  their 
knowledge,  we  might  as  well  stop  teaching  hygiene  alto- 
gether." 

This  point  of  view  wins  general  assent.  Some  of  the 
group  are  pessimistic  but  the  minds  of  one  or  two  begin  at 
once  to  search  for  remedies.  Presently  one  of  these  inter- 
rupts the  conversation  with  an  enthusiastic  outburst. 
"Let's  form  ourselves  into  a  study  club  on  health  edu- 
cation. I'm  tremendously  interested.  It  may  be  too  big 
a  problem  for  us  and  perhaps  the  situation  is  hopeless,  as 
some  of  you  seem  to  think,  but  if  we  confine  our  efforts 
to  the  education  of  Miss  G.'s  class  and  everybody  does 
some  hard  thinking,  we  ought  to  be  able,  among  us,  to  hit 
upon  some  way  of  making  progress." 

Some  of  the  party  are  inclined  to  laugh  at  the  proposal 
but  a  few  take  it  seriously  and  all  agree  to  meet  a  week 
later  and  continue  the  discussion.  At  that  time  it  appears 
that  some  of  the  group  or  club,  as  the  originator  of  the  idea 
insists  on  calling  it,  have  given  the  subject  no  further 


THE   INFLUENCE    OF   EXAMPLE  223 

thought.  Others  have  pondered  the  problem  from  time 
to  time  but  confess  that  they  have  made  no  headway.  One 
of  them  says:  "It  seems  to  me  that  the  only  thing  that 
can  be  done  is  to  tell  people  the  facts  about  health  and 
disease  and  then  leave  the  responsibility  with  them.  People 
of  the  thoughtful,  conscientious  type  —  a  small  minority  - 
will  make  use  of  this  knowledge  and  the  rest  of  us  will 
ignore  more  or  less  of  it  until  it  is  too  late.  I  disagree  with 
the  view  that  we  ought  to  stop  teaching  hygiene  because  so 
few  people  put  their  knowledge  into  practice.  Every- 
body should  be  informed.  Some  of  the  facts  will  probably 
sink  in  and  affect  the  conduct  of  some  individuals  at  some 
time  or  other.  That  is  very  far  from  an  adequate  solution, 
of  course,  but,  for  the  life  of  me,  I  can't  see  how  you  can 
make  a  person  take  care  of  himself  unless  he  wants  to  do  so 
and  has  enough  will  power  to  do  what  he  knows  he  ought 
to  do." 

One  of  the  most  thoughtful  members  of  the  club  then 
takes  the  floor.  "I  agree  with  the  last  speaker,"  he  says, 
"and  I  have  been  puzzling  over  the  question,  'How  can  a 
person  be  educated  to  want  a  thing  so  much  that  he  will 
do  nothing  which  he  knows  will  stand  in  the  way  of  his 
desire  ? '  When  a  person  has  not  enough  will  power  to  do 
what  he  ought  to  do  in  order  to  accomplish  something,  it 
really  means  that  his  desire  for  that  thing  is  not  as  great 
as  his  desire  for  something  else  which  conflicts  with  it. 

With  most  of  us,  instinctive  desires  and  those  which  have 
been  stimulated  by  custom  are  too  strong  to  be  overcome 
in  our  everyday  actions  by  the  rather  indefinite  ideal  of 
conservation  of  health.  If  pupils  are  to  learn  to  make  the 
most  of  themselves  physically,  they  must  be  led  to  want 


224  PROBLEMS    OF   HEALTH 

to  be  strong  and  well  even  more  than  they  want  unlimited 
cake,  or  freedom  from  the  nuisance  of  too thb rushing,  or 
postponement  of  the  pain  associated  with  a  visit  to  the 
dentist. 

As  I  thought  about  the  question,  it  occurred  to  me  to 
try  to  trace  back  some  of  the  ideals  which  have  had  a  con- 
siderable influence  on  my  life  and  have  enabled  me  at  times 
to  avoid  what  might  be  regarded  as  the  easier  or  the  pleas- 
anter  course.  I  thought  that  this  method  might  furnish 
some  clues  to  the  proper  procedure  for  educating  children 
in  matters  of  health.  I  discovered,  on  reflection,  that 
some  of  these  ideals  first  became  impressed  upon  my  mind 
through  reading,  but  usually  they  were  associated  with 
people  whom  I  admired  or  for  whom  I  had  a  strong  affec- 
tion. Even  in  the  cases  in  which  the  ideal  had  its  source 
in  a  book  which  I  had  read,  it  was  almost  always  represented 
by  an  interesting  character  saying  something  or  doing 
something  which  I  admired.  This  was  always  true  in  the 
case  of  ideals  which  I  could  definitely  trace  back  to  the 
years  of  childhood  or  youth.  I  am  inclined  to  think, 
therefore,  that  Miss  G.  would  do  well  to  try  to  bring  her 
pupils  into  contact  with  people  who  are  attractive  to 
children  of  their  age  and  whose  lives  make  self-denial  for 
the  sake  of  physical  well-being  appealing." 

This  suggestion  opens  a  new  path  for  the  other  minds 
whose  thoughts  had  been  traveling  in  a  circle,  and  many 
illustrations  are  offered  in  harmony  with  the  last  speaker's 
experience.  It  is  agreed  to  follow  out  the  new  lead  and 
bring  to  the  next  meeting  concrete  suggestions  for  work  in 
the  classroom.  This  meeting  proves  to  be  intensely  inter- 
esting, with  i-;any  suggestions  and  vigorous  discussion. 


THE   INFLUENCE    OF   EXAMPLE  225 

The  most  valuable  proposals  which  Miss  G.  carries  away 
in  her  notebook  are  these : 

1.  Enthusiastic  devotion  by  the  teacher  to  the  health  ideal  in 
her  own  life,  with  occasional  references  to  her  experiences, 
not  in  the  form  of  exhortation  to  do  likewise,  but  casually, 
as  one  talks  to  friends  about  the  things  which  are  very  near 
his  heart. 

2.  Public  approval  of  worthy  examples  among  the  members  of 
the  class. 

3.  Occasional  visits  from  individuals  attractive  to  young  people 
who  are  good  exponents  of  the  doctrine  of  health. 

4.  Interesting  books  for  boys  and  girls  in  which  characters 
which  they  admire  meet  successfully  situations  involving  a 
choice  between    right    and  wrong   in   regard  to  physical 
welfare,  or  in  which  characters  who  keep  themselves  fit  are 
able  to  accomplish  things  which  appeal  to  boys  and  girls. 
A  considerable  number  of  such  books  is  listed. 

At  later  meetings,  Miss  G.  is  able  to  report  the  results 
of  some  of  the  suggestions  as  she  puts  them  to  the  test. 
Unexpected  difficulties  are  encountered  and  remedies 
suggested.  The  process  of  developing  habits  consistent 
with  ideals  occupies  the  club  for  several  meetings,  and  the 
value  of  commendation  of  the  smallest  progress,  encourage- 
ment of  those  who  become  disheartened,  avoidance  of 
lapses  when  one  has  begun  a  new  course  of  action,  and  the 
stimulation  of  group  interest  are  all  emphasized  by  concrete 
experiences. 

By  the  end  of  the  term,  Miss  G.  herself  has  acquired  a 
stimulating  ideal  which  has  already  made  an  appreciable 
change  in  her  life.  The  class  has  become  keenly  interested 
in  their  own  physical  welfare  and  has  made  real  progress 
in  developing  hygienic  habits.  They  have  formed  a  Keep 
Fit  Club  whose  members  are  ashamed  when  they  are  sick 

E.   T.   PROB. IS 


226  PROBLEMS   OF  HEALTH 

and  are  really  exercising  a  good  deal  of  self-control  in  the 
effort  to  maintain  a  record  of  "No  time  lost  by  sickness." 
The  club  occasionally  invites  physicians,  physical  training 
instructors,  and  athletes  to  speak  at  their  meetings.  Some 
individuals  are  refractory  and  very  few  are  proof  against 
the  temptations  of  the  appetite,  but  as  Miss  G.  remarks : 
"We  can  afford  to  wait  for  the  millennium." 

PRINCIPLES  RELATING  TO  HEALTH 

1.  A  vast  amount  of  waste  and  unhappiness  is  due  to  sickness 
and  physical  weakness.     Hence   one  of   the  most  important 
problems,  both  for  the  public  and  for  the  individual,  is  the  con- 
servation of  health. 

2.  Most  people  fail  to  make  the  most  of  themselves  physi- 
cally, partly  from  lack  of  knowledge,  partly  from  lack  of  ideals. 
The  schools  can  do  no  more  important  work  than  to  impart 
knowledge  necessary  to  health,  cultivate  hygienic  habits,  and 
especially  to  inculcate  ideals  of  physical  efficiency. 

3.  In  dealing  with  the  problem  of  children's  health,  coopera- 
tion between  the  school  and  the  home  is  needed. 

4.  Teachers  should  be  as  much  interested  in  the  health  of 
their  pupils  as  in  their  mental  development  and  should  feel 
responsibility  to  the  same  degree. 

5.  In  order  to  get  the  best  results,  teachers  must  themselves 
have  high  ideals  of  health  and  must  set  a  good  example  of  hy- 
gienic living. 

6.  As  public  servants  upon  whom  much  depends,  teachers 
should  feel  a  high  sense  of  responsibility  for  keeping  themselves 
physically  fit.     Illness  should  not  always  be  regarded  as  a  mis- 
fortune ;  it  is  often  the  result  of  neglect  of  duty. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  156.  —  The  rule  of  the  school  requires  a  teacher  to 
inspect  pupils  at  the  beginning  of  each  session  and  to  send  to 
the  office  any  who  show  signs  of  not  being  well.  She  wonders 
how  she  can  learn  to  "  spot  "  suspicious  cases. 


HYGIENE   AT  SCHOOL  AND   AT  HOME  227 

PROBLEM  157.  —  A  child  is  pale  and  shows  little  energy.  The 
teacher  knows  that  he  comes  from  a  poor  home,  and  suspects 
that  he  does  not  get  enough  to  eat.  She  is  greatly  troubled  and 
feels  that  something  ought  to  be  done,  but  does  not  see  how  she 
can  do  anything  to  help. 

PROBLEM  158.  —  A  class  has  a  party  at  the  school.  The  chil- 
dren furnish  refreshments.  They  consist  almost  entirely  of 
cake  and  candy,  with  ice-cream,  of  course.  Everyone  eats  all 
he  can  hold,  and  many  respond  to  the  appeal  to  "  have  another 
piece  —  we  don't  want  to  have  anything  left." 

PROBLEM  159.  —  A  teacher  works  beyond  her  strength  and  is 
in  poor  physical  condition.  She  has  a  highly  developed  sense 
of  duty  and  takes  pride  in  always  being  at  her  post  even  when 
she  ought  to  be  in  bed. 

PROBLEM  160.  —  In  a  school  system,  much  time  is  lost  by 
teachers  because  of  sickness.  There  is,  of  course,  a  serious 
loss  in  efficiency  of  the  school  work.  The  superintendent  ex- 
presses the  opinion  that  teachers  are  under  obligation  to  the 
public  to  keep  themselves  in  the  best  possible  physical  condition. 
He  asks  each  teacher  to  consider  whether  she  is  doing  her  full 
duty  in  this  respect. 

PROBLEM  161.  —  A  teacher  who  has  not  missed  a  day  on  account 
of  sickness  in  ten  years  says,  half  in  joke,  that  she  thinks  she 
ought  to  have  her  pay  raised.  She  knows  that  most  teachers 
lose  some  time  and  some  lose  a  great  deal,  because  of  illness. 
Her  point  is  that  she  is  of  more  service  to  the  school  than  if  she 
were  away  from  her  post  occasionally.  Another  teacher  says 
that  this  is  no  credit  to  her.  She  is  blessed  with  good  health 
and  ought  to  be  thankful.  If  anything,  the  teacher  who  is 
frequently  sick  ought  to  have  the  highest  pay,  because  her  needs 
are  greater. 

PROBLEM  162.  —  The  board  of  education  is  impressed  with  the 
loss  due  to  illness  of  teachers  and,  in  the  hope  of  improvement, 
retains  physicians  at  its  own  expense,  urging  teachers  to  go  to 
these  physicians  regularly  for  examination  and  medical  advice. 
Very  few  teachers  respond.  The  general  sentiment  is  that  this 
is  the  teacher's  own  private  affair. 


228  PROBLEMS    OF   HEALTH 

PROBLEM  163.  —  A  teacher  is  assigned  to  a  basement  room, 
poorly  lighted,  and  without  ventilation.  She  feels  that  this  may 
affect  her  health,  and  when  another  teacher  leaves,  asks  to  be 
transferred  to  the  vacant  position.  She  wonders  what  a  friend 
means  when  he  says  that  she  is  dodging  the  issue. 

PROBLEM  164.  —  A  parent  calls  on  a  teacher  to  explain  that  her 
daughter  has  been  in  frail  health  and  the  physician  advises 
that  she  be  kept  out  of  school.  The  child,  however,  is  broken- 
hearted and  the  mother  wishes  to  try  the  experiment  of  allowing 
her  to  attend  school  only  in  the  morning.  The  teacher  feels 
that  it  will  establish  a  bad  precedent  to  allow  children  to  think 
that  any  departure  can  be  made  from  the  regular  school  hours. 

PROBLEM  166.  —  During  an  epidemic  of  scarlet  fever,  the  prin- 
cipal asks  the  teachers  to  try  to  plan  lessons  which  will  help  to 
check  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

REFERENCES 

Hoag,  E.  B.,  and  Terman,  L.  M.,  Health  Work  in  the  Schools. 
Rapeer,  L.  W.,  Educational  Hygiene,  Chapters  III,  IV,  XXV-XXX. 
Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  Chapter  XVIII. 
Sechrist,  F.  K.,  Education  and  the  General  Welfare. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process. 
Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Teacher's  Health. 
Curtis,  H.  S.,  Recreation  for  Teachers. 
Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child. 
Strayer,   G.   D.,   and    Engelhardt,   N.,    The     Classroom    Teacher, 
Chapters  XI,  XIV. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PROBLEMS    OF   RELATIONSHIP   WITH    SUPERVISORS 

PURPOSE  OF  SUPERVISION;  TEACHERS  AND  SUPERVISORS; 
COOPERATION 

PROBLEM  166.  —  A  teacher,  who  has  worked  for  a  few  years  in 
a  small  school  in  which  there  is  little  or  no  supervision  and  has 
acquired  a  technic  of  her  own,  begins  to  teach  in  a  much  larger 
system  in  which  the  principals  give  a  good  deal  of  time  to  supervi- 
sion, and  supervisors  of  drawing,  industrial  arts,  music,  and  phys- 
ical training  have  charge  of  the  work  in  those  subjects.  She 
finds  it  difficult  to  adapt  herself  to  the  change.  She  is 
uncomfortable  when  supervisors  visit  her  room.  She  feels  that 
they  are  observing  her  critically  and  this  feeling  prevents  her 
doing  herself  justice.  She  is  very  sensitive  toward  suggestions 
and  criticisms,  regarding  them  as  humiliating  reflections  upon 
her  skill.  She  feels  that  supervisors  of  special  subjects  are 
unnecessary  and  that  principals  should  concern  themselves  with 
matters  of  discipline  and  administration.  She  is  invited  to 
return  to  her  former  position.  The  salary  offered  is  less  than 
she  is  receiving  but  her  expenses  would  be  less.  Her  impulse  is 
to  accept  but  she  decides  to  explain  the  situation  to  the 
superintendent  before  making  a  final  decision. 

THE  teacher  makes  an  appointment  for  an  interview  with 
the  superintendent  and,  at  the  appointed  time,  shows  him 
the  letter  which  she  has  received  from  her  former  employers, 
explains  why  she  has  been  dissatisfied  and  unhappy  in  her 
present  position,  and  says:  "It  would  be  a  great  relief 
if  I  could  get  away  from  these  distasteful  conditions  and 
go  back  where  I  could  be  free  to  do  my  own  work  in  my  own 
way  and  have  it  appreciated.  Nevertheless,  I  do  not  want  to 

229 


230  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   SUPERVISORS 

make  a  mistake.  I  have  looked  forward  to  the  opportunity 
of  working  in  a  larger  system  and  now  that  I  have  it,  I 
do  not  want  to  throw  it  away  until  I  am  sure  that  my  ambi- 
tion was  a  mistaken  one.  Therefore  I  should  like  your 
advice  before  I  answer  this  letter." 

Before  he  replies,  the  superintendent  spends  several 
minutes  in  reflection,  jotting  down  notes  occasionally. 
Then  he  says:  "I  think  I  understand  your  state  of  mind 
but,  before  I  can  advise  you,  I  shall  need  to  know  whether 
it  can  be  changed.  Unless  you  can  come  to  see  things  in  a 
different  light,  it  will  probably  be  better  for  you  to  go.  Let 
us  go  over  the  points  of  your  indictment  of  your  present 
situation.  I  have  made  a  list  of  them,  putting  them  in  my 
own  order. 

1.  Supervision  by  specialists  and  principals  is  unneces- 
sary —  merely  annoying. 

2.  Their  plans  and  the  methods  which  they  advocate 
conflict  with  your  own  ideas  and  the  practices  which  you 
have  worked  out  to  your  own  satisfaction. 

3.  You  are  embarrassed  by  their  critical  observation. 

4.  You  feel  that  they  underestimate  your  ability  since 
you  are  unable  to  do  your  best  work  under  observation. 

5.  Their  criticisms  are  not  valid  —  merely  humiliating. 
Now  let  us  consider  these  five  points  and  see  if  your 

position  is  sound.  If  you  convince  me  that  it  is,  the  logical 
thing  for  me  to  do  is  to  try  to  change  our  procedure  and 
then,  presumably,  you  will  be  glad  to  stay.  If,  after  our 
discussion,  you  are  still  convinced  that  you  are  right  while 
I  stand  up  for  our  scheme  of  supervision,  you  will  be  justi- 
fied in  withdrawing  after  a  reasonable  notice.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  I  convince  you  that  you  have  not  seen  things  in 


PURPOSE    OF   SUPERVISION  231 

the  right  light,  you  may  get  a  new  point  of  view  which 
will  enable  you  to  enjoy  your  work. 

Could  we  dispense  with  supervision  without  loss  to  the 
schools?  Why  do  practically  all  school  systems  of  any 
considerable  size  make  supervisors  a  part  of  their  organiza- 
tion, and  why  do  writers  on  school  administration  urge 
that  principals  give  more  of  their  time  to  supervision? 
Why  does  the  opposition  to  supervision  always  come  from 
teachers  or  members  of  school  boards  or,  in  the  case  of 
special  supervisors,  from  principals,  but  never  from  superin- 
tendents? You  may  say  that  superintendents  become  so 
enamored  of  the  joy  of  managing  other  people  that  they 
overdo  the  process,  try  to  plan  all  the  details  of  school 
work  and,  with  the  aid  of  supervisors,  undertake  to  make 
everybody  carry  out  their  ideas,  instead  of  recognizing  that 
teachers  have  some  ability  to  think  and  plan.  I  admit  that 
this  is  sometimes  so  and  that  when  supervision  becomes 
domination  and  checks  initiative,  it  is  harmful ;  but  not 
all  superintendents  are  martinets  and  even  those  who  are 
striving  to  encourage  initiative  among  their  teachers  seem 
to  believe  in  the  importance  of  supervision  quite  as  much 
as  the  others.  They  have  a  different  conception  of  super- 
vision —  but  we  will  come  to  that  later. 

I  believe  that  the  chief  reason  why  progressive  superin- 
tendents have  urged  the  employment  of  special  supervisors. 
-  often  against  strong  opposition  —  and  have  encouraged 
principals  to  regard  supervision  as  their  most  important 
duty,  is  that  they  are  responsible  for  the  work  of  the  school 
system  as  a  whole.  They  have  a  better  opportunity  than 
anyone  else  to  compare  the  work  of  one  teacher  with  another, 
to  observe  continuity  or  lack  of  continuity  in  the  develop- 


232  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   SUPERVISORS 

ment  of  a  group  of  children,  and  to  estimate  the  degree 
of  success  which  the  school  system  as  a  working  organization 
is  attaining.  Your  school  board  member,  who  probably 
has  never  made  any  study  of  education  and,  except  when 
complaints  come  to  him  from  parents,  is  apt  to  assume 
that  the  schools  are  all  right,  naturally  opposes  any  additional 
expenditure.  He  has  to  be  shown,  before  he  will  admit 
that  a  supervisor  is  necessary.  Sometimes  the  possibility 
of  cutting  fifteen  hundred  dollars  from  the  budget  and 
winning  the  approval  of  tax-payers  makes  him  confident 
that  a  supervisor  can  be  dropped  without  loss  to  the  schools. 
If  he  is  confirmed  in  this  view  by  even  a  single  teacher, 
the  superintendent  may  find  it  impossible  to  retain  what 
he  has  gained  by  long  effort  and  regards  as  a  vital  element 
in  his  organization. 

Principals  sometimes  object  to  special  supervisors  because 
they  like  to  keep  the  control  of  their  schools  in  their  own 
hands  and  the  visits  of  supervisors  complicate  their  pro- 
grams, and  limit  their  freedom  of  disposing  of  the  time  of 
their  teachers.  I  think  it  is  fair  to  say,  however,  that  the 
finest  type  of  principal  is  usually  in  favor  of  supervision. 

Your  own  statement  shows  clearly  enough  why  teachers 
often  feel  that  it  would  be  an  advantage  if  supervision  were 
eliminated.  Perhaps  the  chief  cause  of  objection  to  super- 
vision on  the  part  of  teachers,  principals,  and  indirectly 
of  school  board  members  is  the  unattractive  personalities 
or  unwise  actions  of  individual  supervisors,  but  you  will 
agree  with  me  that  such  special  cases  ought  not  to  condemn 
the  principle.  My  point  is  that  it  is  difficult  for  all  these 
groups  —  teachers,  principals,  and  board  members  —  to 
obtain  more  than  a  partial  view  of  the  whole  situation  and 


TEACHERS    AND   PRINCIPALS  233 

that,  since  superintendents,  who  are  responsible  for  the 
whole  enterprise  and  have  the  best  opportunity  of  viewing 
it  as  a  whole,  consider  supervision  essential,  it  would  be 
well  to  try  to  look  at  the  matter  through  their  eyes  before 
condemning  the  practice. 

Now  let  us  imagine  that  all  of  our  supervisors  should  be 
dismissed  and  principals  should  confine  their  efforts  to 
administrative  problems.  What  difference  would  that 
make  in  the  work  of  our  schools  ?  In  the  first  place,  some 
of  our  younger  teachers  would  fail  and  have  to  leave  with  a 
disheartening  sense  of  failure  at  the  beginning  of  an  an- 
ticipated career.  Worse  yet,  their  classes  would  suffer  a 
serious  injury  at  the  hands  of  a  poor  teacher,  possibly  a 
succession  of  poor  teachers,  before  someone  could  be  found 
to  handle  the  situation  without  help.  Teaching  is  a  diffi- 
cult job.  I  doubt  if  we  can  rely  upon  revelation  as  a  basis 
for  success  in  teaching  any  more  than  in  plumbing.  Both 
require  apprenticeship  and,  in  my  opinion,  this  preliminary 
training  is  vastly  more  important  for  the  young  teacher 
than  for  the  prospective  artisan.  A  very  important  part 
of  the  work  of  principals  and  supervisors  is  the  initiation 
of  the  new  members  into  the  profession." 

"Then  why  not  limit  supervision  to  beginners?"  the 
teacher  interrupts.  "Why  bother  those  who  have  already 
worked  out  their  salvation?" 

"How  long  have  you  taught?"  the  superintendent  asks. 
"Two  years, "  is  the  reply.  "And  how  much  time  have  you 
spent  in  the  study  of  education?"  "I  graduated  from 
normal  school  —  two  years'  course."  "Do  you  feel  that 
you  have  completely  mastered  the  art  of  teaching?"  "Of 
course  not,"  the  teacher  replies  somewhat  impatiently. 


234  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   SUPERVISORS 

"I  expect  to  make  progress  every  year."  "Then  you 
expect  to  know  a  good  deal  more  about  education  ten  years 
from  now,  if  you  should  continue  to  teach  so  long,  than  you 
do  at  present ?  "  "Naturally  !" 

"Well,"  says  the  superintendent,  "the  principal  of  your 
school  has  taught  for  more  than  twenty  years,  has  met  all 
kinds  of  problems,  and  helped  teachers  in  all  kinds  of 
difficulties.  Every  one  of  the  supervisors  has  had  ten  years 
or  more  of  experience  and  has  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  in 
the  study  of  his  special  field.  Don't  you  believe  that  they 
have  something  to  contribute  which  would  help  you  to 
make  more  rapid  progress  than  you  can  make  by  your 
own  efforts?" 

The  teacher  is  somewhat  taken  aback  by  this  question. 
"  Ye-es,"  she  replies,  "but  I  think  one  gains  power  by  work- 
ing things  out  for  one's  self."  "Undoubtedly,"  the  super- 
intendent agrees.  "It  would  be  poor  supervision  that  left 
no  opportunity  for  a  teacher  to  exercise  initiative  and  to 
learn  much  by  experience,  but  on  the  other  hand  progress 
would  be  very  slow  if  nobody  should  take  advantage  of 
what  others  have  learned.  You  would  not  advocate,  I 
presume,  the  abandonment  of  cook  books,  cooking  schools, 
and  instruction  of  daughters  by  their  mothers,  in  order  that 
every  girl  might  learn  to  cook  by  her  own  unaided  efforts. 
Why  should  not  a  teacher  need  the  advice  and  direction  of 
more  experienced  members  of  the  profession?" 

"I  suppose  you  are  right,"  the  teacher  assents,  "but  I 
hate  to  give  up  the  methods  which  I  discovered  by  hard 
work  and  which  I  find  successful." 

"We  will  come  to  that  in  a  minute,"  the  superintendent 
goes  on.  "Let  us  consider  another  difficulty  which  would 


TEACHERS    AND    PRINCIPALS  235 

arise,  if  we  should  abandon  all  supervision.  Each  teacher 
would  teach  in  her  own  way.  Those  who  have  special 
ability  and  interest  in  music  would  probably  teach  the 
subject  effectively  but  without  sufficient  relation  to  the  work 
in  other  grades.  Those  who  are  not  much  interested  in 
music  would  be  apt  to  slight  it.  Even  with  a  very  definite 
course  of  study  there  would  be  great  variation  among  the 
different  classes.  We  should  have  a  lot  of  independent 
efforts,  some  good,  some  bad,  with  more  or  less  duplication 
and  no  consistent  development  from  grade  to  grade." 

"I  think  that  difficulty  could  be  avoided  through  con- 
ferences among  teachers,"  the  young  woman  argues.  "Per- 
haps it  could  but  I  doubt  if  it  would.  '  What  is  everybody's 
business/  you  know.  I  have  thought  for  a  long  time  that 
we  ought  to  have  a  supervisor  of  nature  study  or  elementary 
science.  I  have  urged  the  value  of  this  subject,  have 
held  conferences,  and  furnished  outlines,  but  the  work 
which  is  actually  going  on  is  very  'patchy.'  A  few  teachers 
are  enthusiasts  and  do  splendid  work,  others  do  something 
in  a  desultory  way,  and  some  neglect  the  subject  altogether. 
There  is  no  systematic  regular  progress  from  grade  to  grade. 

You  said  a  moment  ago  that  it  is  hard  for  you  to  give  up 
your  own  methods  when  they  conflict  with  the  ideas  of  a 
supervisor.  You  ought  not  to  give  them  up  until  you  have 
explained  them  thoroughly  and  given  your  reasons  for 
believing  them  superior  to  the  ones  proposed.  Some 
supervisors  may  not  be  open-minded  enough  to  give  you  a 
fair  hearing  but  that  is  the  fault  of  individual  supervisors 
not  of  supervision.  If  you  are  open-minded  yourself  and 
try  to  understand  the  proposed  plan,  offering  to  try  it  out 
and  striving  to  get  the  best  possible  results,  the  good  super- 


236         RELATIONSHIP  WITH  SUPERVISORS 

visor  will  be  willing  to  let  the  comparative  results  determine 
the  decision.  It  will  help  you,  I  think,  if  you  keep  in  mind 
that  the  important  thing  is  the  progress  of  the  children, 
and  make  your  pride  in  your  own  plan  quite  subordinate 
to  that  aim. 

One  of  your  complaints  is  that  you  are  embarrassed  and 
unable  to  do  your  best  work  when  supervisors  visit  your 
room.  The  best  way  that  I  know  of  to  overcome  that 
feeling  is  to  keep  your  mind  on  your  purpose  —  helping 
the  pupils  to  accomplish  as  much  as  possible.  If  you  can 
do  this,  you  will  be  less  conscious  of  yourself  and  less 
troubled  about  what  the  supervisor  thinks  about  you. 
Don't  be  afraid  to  let  the  supervisor  see  all  your  difficulties. 
He  can  help  you  most  if  you  ask  him  to  observe  the  kind 
of  work  with  which  you  are  least  satisfied.  When  I  was 
learning  to  drive  an  automobile,  I  was  frightened  to  death 
at  the  thought  of  driving  through  a  crowded  street,  and 
I  was  very  anxious  that  the  young  man  who  was  instruct- 
ing me  should  not  consider  me  utterly  stupid.  I  had  a 
strong  inclination  to  keep  to  the  broad,  unfrequented 
streets  where  my  modicum  of  experience  would  enable  me 
to  appear  like  a  veteran.  Nevertheless,  my  reason  told 
me  that  this  was  my  chance  to  get  all  the  help  which  the 
instructor  could  give  me.  In  a  few  days,  having  obtained  a 
license,  I  should  have  to  blunder  my  own  way  out  of  diffi- 
culties and  perhaps  smash  the  car  in  the  process.  There- 
fore I  set  my  jaw  and  drove  again  and  again  through  traffic. 
It  was  not  much  fun  but  I  learned  a  lot. 

Now  my  advice  is  that  you  set  to  work  to  learn  all  you 
can  from  the  supervisors.  Never  mind  if  they  do  sometimes 
underestimate  your  ability.  If  you  really  have  the  ability, 


TEACHERS    AND    SUPERVISORS  237 

you  can  afford  to  grin  at  their  mistakes.  Tell  them  to 
criticize  you  severely,  that  you  aren't  afraid  of  criticism 
if  they  give  it  to  you  straight,  and  show  them  that  you  can 
profit  by  criticism. 

Finally,  let  me  emphasize  one  point  which  I  have  already 
touched  upon.  It  is  a  thought  which  has  helped  me  very 
much  as  teacher,  principal,  and  superintendent.  Don't  take 
a  personal  view  of  your  professional  relations  with  super- 
visors. Remember  your  main  purpose  and  don't  let  per- 
sonal feelings  interfere  with  it.  You  may  think  that  a 
supervisor  has  been  unfair.  He  may  have  said  something 
which  has  hurt  your  feelings.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the 
fault  was  unintentional.  If  not,  he  has  only  hurt  himself, 
not  you,  unless  you  choose  to  be  hurt.  If  you  nurse  a 
grudge,  you  will  injure  your  work.  If  you  keep  your  mind 
on  your  purpose,  you  can  ignore  the  injury  and  often  you 
will  find  it  imaginary." 

The  teacher  thanks  him  and  says,  as  she  rises  to  depart 
"I'm  afraid  I  can't  measure  up  to  your  ideal,  but  I'll  try 
not  to  dodge  the  traffic." 

PROBLEM  167.  —  One  of  the  teachers  of  a  school  system  is  made 
supervisor  of  drawing.  Some  of  the  teachers  who  have  taught 
as  long  as  she  has  resent  the  appointment.  The  public  com- 
mendation, which  she  received  while  a  teacher,  for  her  work  in 
drawing,  aroused  jealousy  and  led  these  teachers  to  make  sneer- 
ing remarks.  At  conferences  led  by  the  new  supervisor,  her 
opponents  take  little  part,  assuming  a  bored  attitude  and  oc- 
casionally offering  objections  to  her  proposals.  Some  of  them 
pay  little  attention  to  her  directions  and  continue  to  teach  in 
their  own  way.  On  one  occasion,  the  supervisor  makes  the 
remark  that  the  superintendent  expects  her  to  bring  about  an 
improvement  in  the  work  in  drawing,  meaning  that  he  has  put 
upon  her  special  responsibility  for  accomplishment.  The  re- 


238  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   SUPERVISORS 

mark  becomes  modified  by  frequent  repetition  until  she  is  gener- 
ally believed  to  have  said  that  the  superintendent  will  see  that 
her  plans  are  carried  out.  This  and  other  misinterpretations 
add  to  the  opposition.  The  supervisor  proposes  to  introduce 
a  new  set  of  drawing  books  involving  a  novel  method  and  an- 
nounces a  series  of  weekly  conferences  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
the  plan.  This  causes  a  storm  of  indignation  behind  the  scenes, 
and  the  chief  objectors  declare  that  it  is  time  to  stop  this  folly. 
The  discussion  spreads  rapidly  through  the  whole  teaching  staff 
and  a  group  of  teachers  visits  members  of  the  board  of  educa- 
tion and  declares  that  the  teachers  have  lost  confidence  in  the 
supervisor  and  that  her  continuance  would  be  a  detriment  to 
the  schools.  They  consider  the  employment  of  a  supervisor 
of  drawing  a  useless  expense.  The  superintendent  learns  of 
the  situation  from  the  president  of  the  board  and  summons 
the  ring-leaders  for  a  conference. 

The  superintendent  opens  the  conference  by  saying: 
"I  need  your  help  in  meeting  a  situation  which  threatens 
serious  disturbance  in  our  schools.  It  is  reported  that  there 
is  opposition  among  the  teachers  to  Miss  M.  as  supervisor. 
Some  teachers  have  even  been  to  see  members  of  the  board 
of  education  and  urged  that  she  be  dismissed  from  the 
position.  I  say  that  the  situation  threatens  to  injure  the 
schools.  The  dismissal  or  demotion  of  a  member  of  the 
staff  is  almost  sure  to  arouse  intense  feeling  and  may  even 
cause  a  factional  division.  I  am  asking  your  help  because 
most  of  you  have  taught  here  for  a  long  time  and  must 
therefore  have  a  strong  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
schools.  You  are  in  a  position  to  know  the  attitude  of 
teachers  and  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  your  influence 
will  count  with  them." 

The  teachers  are  uneasy  during  this  explanation.  They 
had  not  expected  this  method  of  approach,  but  had  prepared 
themselves  for  hostility,  anticipating  a  defense  of  the  super- 


TEACHERS   AND    SUPERVISORS  239 

visor.  They  do  not  wish  to  accept  any  responsibility  for 
the  situation  and  especially  dislike  the  idea  of  coming  out 
in  the  open  as  leading  figures  in  a  controversy.  Those 
who  visited  the  board  members  had  asked  that  their 
names  be  kept  out  of  the  matter.  Their  idea  was  that  the 
board  would  act  without  disclosing  the  source  of  its  infor- 
mation. The  suggestion  that  they  cooperate  in  a  solution 
of  the  problem  rather  frightens  them.  Some  start  to  dis- 
claim any  special  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  to  deny 
that  they  are  influential  with  other  teachers,  but  when  the 
superintendent  offers  to  enlarge  the  committee  by  inviting 
any  others  whom  they  may  name,  they  have  no  suggestions 
to  make.  He  goes  on  : 

"We  ought  to  know  first  how  general  this  opposition  is 
and  the  basis  for  it.  Will  you  tell  me  what  you  know  about 
that?"  Nobody  volunteers  an  answer  so  he  calls  upon 
individuals.  One  or  two  profess  to  know  of  no  definite 
opposition  and  others  declare  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
opposition  but  they  have  no  knowledge  of  the  reason  for  it. 
Some  say  that  the  supervisor  insists  upon  impractical 
methods,  that  she  hurts  teachers'  feelings  by  tactless 
remarks,  and  that  teachers  have  no  confidence  in  her  ability 
or  judgment.  One  of  the  group  forgets  to  be  impersonal 
and  relates  with  much  feeling  some  of  her  own  experiences. 
"Did  you  talk  over  these  matters  with  Miss  M.?"  the 
superintendent  inquires.  "Of  course  I  didn't,"  she  replies. 
"After  what  she  said  to  me,  I  don't  intend  to  have  any 
more  to  do  with  her  than  I  can  help."  "Are  you  sure  that 
she  was  aware  that  she  had  hurt  your  feelings?  "  "Well, 
if  she  wasn't  she  ought  to  have  been." 

"I  am  not  trying  to  defend  Miss  M.,"  the  superintendent 


240  RELATIONSHIP    WITH    SUPERVISORS 

continues.  "I  am  not  in  a  position  to  judge  of  the  merits 
of  the  case,  because  I  have  not  all  the  facts.  I  have  your 
statement  of  Miss  M.'s  words,  which  I  do  not  question,  and 
I  know  the  impression  which  they  made  upon  you,  but  in 
order  to  interpret  the  case  accurately  I  should  have  to  know 
what  was  in  her  mind,  what  she  really  intended.  The 
longer  I  live,  the  more  convinced  I  become  of  the  difficulty 
of  making  upon  the  mind  of  another  person  the  exact  im- 
pression which  one  wishes  to  make.  It  is  difficult  enough 
when  one  gives  his  whole  attention  to  it,  and,  in  the  casual, 
unpremeditated  remarks  which  one  is  constantly  making, 
the  chance  of  misunderstanding  is  very  great.  One  of 
the  worst  sources  of  trouble  in  this  world  is  misunderstand- 
ing. Many  a  worthy  enterprise  is  wrecked  because  people 
who  start  to  work  together  fail  to  understand  each  other. 
There  is  a  falling  out  and  the  enterprise  is  retarded  if  not 
abandoned.  I  hope  you  will  not  think  that  I  am  preaching. 
I  am  simply  relating  my  experience,  and  I  am  going  to  tell 
you  a  few  things  which  I  believe  with  all  my  heart. 

No  group  of  people  can  work  together  successfully  unless 
they  believe  in  each  other  and  disregard  each  other's  appar- 
ent peculiarities.  We  are  all  queer  —  from  the  other 
person's  standpoint,  that  is,  we  all  have  our  peculiar  points 
of  view.  We  cannot  see  into  each  other's  minds  perfectly. 
We  are  bound  to  differ  in  tastes,  habits,  and  temperament 
We  are  bound  to  clash  unless  we  are  tolerant  of  each  other's 
peculiarities.  There  are  two  articles  in  my  creed  which 
help  me  a  great  deal  in  working  with  other  people.  The 
first  is  'Keep  your  mind  on  the  main  purpose.'  Don't 
be  side-tracked  by  personal  irritations.  In  working  with 
other  people,  try  to  act  in  a  way  which  will  accomplish  most 


TEACHERS   AND    SUPERVISORS  241 

in  carrying  out  the  common  purpose.  The  second  article 
is  'Be  frank  in  your  relations  with  other  people.'  When  a 
difficulty  arises,  when  another  person  does  something  or 
says  something  which  you  dislike,  especially  if  it  is  some- 
thing which  may  hamper  the  accomplishment  of  the  enter- 
prise in  which  you  are  both  engaged,  have  it  out  with  him 
face  to  face.  Don't  maintain  an  offended  silence  and  don't, 
above  all  things,  tell  about  his  outrageous  conduct  to  other 
people,  for  such  action,  while  it  may  give  you  some  personal 
satisfaction,  will  not  further  your  main  purpose.  Set 
your  mind  on  straightening  out  the  difficulty  and  don't 
waste  time  in  being  'sore'  about  it.  If  my  experience  is 
typical,  the  difficulty,  when  handled  as  I  suggest,  will 
almost  always  prove  to  be  due  to  misunderstanding." 

The  only  definite  criticism  of  Miss  M.  which  is  generally 
agreed  upon  is  the  attempt  to  introduce  the  new  course  in 
drawing  and  the  plan  of  special  conferences  in  preparation 
for  it.  The  superintendent  tries  to  obtain  accurate  state- 
ments about  the  new  books,  but  without  much  success. 
When  he  asks  one  of  the  teachers  to  point  out  certain 
weaknesses  which  she  has  referred  to,  she  is  unable  to  do  so 
and  he  is  able  to  show  that  some  alleged  omissions  do  not, 
in  fact,  exist.  The  teachers  admit  that  they  have  not 
examined  the  books  carefully  but  have  relied  upon  reports 
coming  from  others. 

"Now,"  says  the  superintendent,  "do  you  think  that  the 
case  against  Miss  M.  is  strong  enough  to  justify  anyone 
in  going  into  court  with  a  recommendation  for  her  dis- 
missal? If  she  is  inefficient  or  in  any  other  way  a  detri- 
ment to  the  schools,  we  ought  to  secure  her  withdrawal, 
but  I  confess  that  I  should  be  very  doubtful  of  convincing 

E.    T.    PROJB. 1 6 


242  RELATIONSHIP    WITH    SUPKRVISORS 

fair-minded  people  that  she  ought  to  be  dismissed  upon 
such  evidence  as  we  seem  to  have.  It  would  injure  the 
schools  very  seriously  and  diminish  public  esteem  for  the 
complainants  if  the  matter  should  appear  as  an  unjust 
attack  upon  an  individual.  Even  if  the  school  board 
should  be  so  impressed  by  the  attitude  of  teachers  as  to 
dismiss  Miss  M.  without  attempting  to  make  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  facts,  I  cannot  believe  that  any  con- 
siderable number  of  teachers  would  be  satisfied.  What 
shall  we  do?" 

"Drop  the  whole  thing,  I  suppose,"  one  of  the  teachers 
replies  in  a  tone  of  indifference. 

"Are  you  satisfied,  apart  from  the  danger  of  factional 
strife  which  might  be  caused  by  Miss  M.'s  dismissal,  that  it 
will  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  schools  to  retain  her  as  super- 
visor ?  Will  the  teachers  cooperate  with  her  heartily  ?  " 

"Indeed  they  won't.  We  have  told  you  that  teachers 
have  no  confidence  in  her.  If  we  drop  the  matter,  it  will 
be  simply  to  avoid  a  row." 

"If  that  is  the  case,  it  seems  to  me  that  it  would  be  a 
mistake  to  simply  drop  the  affair,  for  that  would  leave  the 
problem  unsolved.  Let  us  see  if  we  cannot  think  of  a 
plan  by  which  we  can  reach  a  real  solution." 

One  of  the  teachers  suggests  that  if  the  supervisor  could 
be  induced  to  resign,  the  matter  would  be  settled.  "Are 
you  sure  that  that  would  completely  overcome  the  diffi- 
culty?" the  superintendent  asks. 

"I  don't  think  so,"  one  replies.  "She  would  still  feel 
that  she  had  been  forced  out,  and  a  good  many  people,  even 
a  few  teachers,  would  side  with  her.  It  would  probably 
leave  a  sense  of  injury  which  would  last  for  some  time." 


COOPERATION  WITH  SUPERVISORS         243 

No  other  suggestion  is  forthcoming  until  the  superintend- 
ent says:  ''Let  us  state  the  problem  as  it  now  appears. 
Many  teachers  feel  that  Miss  M.  is  not  a  satisfactory 
supervisor  but  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  to  convince 
fair-minded  people  that  she  ought  to  be  dismissed.  Does 
that  suggest  the  next  step?"  One  replies:  "We  ought  to 
collect  evidence,"  and  another :  "We  might  ask  the  teachers 
to  report  every  case  in  which  they  have  cause  of  complaint. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  we  should  be  able  to  back  up  our 
contention." 

"I  don't  think  that  is  quite  fair  to  Miss  M.,"  one  of  the 
teachers  objects.  "  This  conference  has  raised  doubts  in 
my  mind.  I  am  not  sure  that  we  have  given  her  a  fair 
chance.  If  we  follow  the  plan  just  suggested  we  shall  be 
prejudicing  the  case  in  advance  by  inviting  teachers  to  look 
for  trouble.  I  agree  that  we  ought  to  have  a  year's  trial 
but  during  that  time  I  think  we  ought  to  pitch  in  and  do 
everything  we  can  to  help  her.  If  we  do  that  and  at  the 
end  of  the  time  the  work  is  not  going  well,  perhaps  she  will 
see  that  she  is  not  fitted  for  the  position  and  resign  volun- 
tarily. If  not,  perhaps  our  superintendent  would  be  ready 
to  advise  her  to  do  so.  However,  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  if  we  all  do  our  best  to  make  her  work  a  success,  we 
shall  have  a  very  different  feeling  by  the  end  of  the  year." 

This  suggestion  wins  approval  from  most  of  the  members 
of  the  conference  and  the  discussion  then  turns  to  the  method 
of  changing  the  state  of  mind  of  the  disaffected  teachers. 
Most  of  the  schools  are  represented  in  the  informal  com- 
mittee, and  it  is  agreed  that  each  one  will  talk  with  other 
teachers  individually  or  in  groups,  explaining  the  situation 
as  it  now  appears  and  trying  to  win  their  support  for  a  trial 


244  RELATIONSHIP    WITH    SUPERVISORS 

which  aims  not  at  defeat  of  the  supervisor  but  at  success 
for  the  schools. 

PROBLEM  168.  —  A  supervisor  explains  to  the  teachers  the  possi- 
bilities of  project  work  in  his  department.  He  gives  several 
illustrations  and  furnishes  a  list  of  projects,  saying  that  teachers 
may  select  from  these  or  propose  their  own.  He  offers  to  give 
help  but  asks  teachers  to  cooperate  in  working  out  the  details. 
Several  teachers  have  a  discussion  after  the  meeting.  One 
says  that  the  supervisor  is  calling  upon  teachers  to  do  his  work. 
"  He  ought,"  she  says,  "  to  tell  us  exactly  what  to  do  in  each 
grade.  I  have  no  time  to  work  the  scheme  out  for  him."  An- 
other teacher  is  inclined  to  sympathize  with  the  speaker  but, 
as  she  thinks  the  matter  over,  certain  doubts  enter  her  mind 
and  she  asks  herself  what  the  relationship  of  teacher  and  super- 
visor should  be  in  developing  a  new  piece  of  work. 

The  teacher's  first  thought  is  that  the  supervisor  ought 
to  take  the  responsibility  for  working  out  new  plans. 
She  thinks:  "He  is  paid  a  higher  salary  because  he  is 
supposed  to  know  more  about  his  subject  than  teachers  do. 
If  teachers  are  to  do  the  planning,  where  is  the  need  of  a  su- 
pervisor ?  His  salary  ought  to  be  used  to  increase  teachers' 
salaries."  Then  she  begins  to  think  of  what  was  presented 
at  the  conference  and  admits  that  the  supervisor's  part  in 
it  must  have  cost  considerable  time  and  effort.  She  doubts 
whether  any  of  the  teachers  could  have  presented  the 
subject  so  clearly.  Certainly  very  few  of  them  could  have 
done  so,  and  probably  none  of  them  could  have  given 
illustrations  which  would  apply  to  so  many  grades. 

"Then  why  should  he  not  work  the  whole  scheme  out  in 
detail  for  all  of  us?"  she  asks  herself.  During  the  discus- 
sion after  the  meeting  some  of  the  teachers  had  seemed  to 
think  that  he  was  trying  to  save  himself  work.  She  doesn't 
fully  believe  this  and,  as  she  thinks  about  it,  the  thought 


COOPERATION  WITH  SUPERVISORS         245 

comes  to  her  that  the  test  of  the  matter  should  be  the 
actual  accomplishment  in  the  education  of  the  children. 
The  question  becomes:  "Is  that  accomplishment  likely 
to  be  better  if  teachers  take  part  in  working  out  the  new 
plan  than  if  they  simply  follow  the  supervisor's  directions?  " 
Arguments  on  both  sides  occur  to  her.  Some  teachers 
could  work  out  excellent  plans  and  get  them  in  operation 
more  quickly  than  could  be  done  if  the  supervisor  had  to 
work  out  every  project  in  detail.  Any  project  which  is 
planned  for  a  given  grade  in  all  schools  would  sometimes  be 
less  successful  than  one  which  has  been  developed  for  a 
particular  group  of  children.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
teachers  have  not  sufficient  ingenuity  to  develop  a  new 
scheme  as  the  supervisor  could  do  it  if  he  could  give  suffi- 
cient time  to  the  problem.  She  has  no  great  confidence  in 
her  own  ability  to  work  out  a  successful  project. 

The  teacher  comes  to  no  definite  conclusion  but  thinks 
about  the  matter  occasionally  during  the  following  week, 
trying  to  decide  what  project  to  take.  The  suggested 
projects  for  her  grade,  the  fifth,  are : 

1.  A  program  for  the  school  assembly. 

2.  A  class   history  containing   events   in  the  school   career 
of    the  class  and   accounts    of   interesting   experiences    of    in- 
dividuals, the  record  to  be  bound,  decorated,  and  illustrated 
by  members  of  the  class. 

3.  A  study  of  the  birds  to  be  seen  in  and  about  the  town. 

None  of  these  appeals  to  her  very  strongly  although  she 
thinks  that  any  one  of  them  could  be  made  interesting. 
She  decides  to  ]c':  the  class  choose  but  before  the  time 
comes  when  she  had  planned  to  put  the  question  before  the 
children,  a  situation  arises  which  causes  her  to  change 


246  RELATIONSHIP    WITH   SUPERVISORS 

her  mind.  During  a  geography  lesson  the  children  become 
much  interested  in  some  of  the  pictures  in  the  textbook. 
The  next  day  one  of  the  boys  brings  a  copy  of  the  National 
Geographic  Magazine  which  is  examined  with  delight  and 
furnishes  material  for  enthusiastic  discussion.  Other 
children  are  fired  with  zeal  for  collecting  geographical 
pictures,  the  bulletin  board  is  soon  filled  and  the  disposal 
of  the  material  becomes  a  problem.  The  supervisor's 
suggestion  of  a  class  history  gives  the  teacher  an  idea  and 
she  suggests  that  the  class  might  make  some  geographies 
of  their  own.  This  idea  is  seized  upon  with  avidity  and  the 
project  is  launched. 

The  teacher  meets  many  problems  as  the  work  proceeds. 
It  is  hard  to  keep  the  new  project  from  monopolizing  the 
class  time.  Some  of  the  children  want  to  talk  endlessly, 
and  some  begin  to  lose  interest  quickly.  When  she  men- 
tions her  difficulties  to  the  supervisor,  he  usually  has  some 
helpful  suggestions  to  offer.  He  is  appreciative  of  her 
efforts  and  occasionally  visits  the  class  to  see  the  growing 
books  and  talk  with  the  children  about  new  acquisitions. 
He  frequently  uses  this  project  in  explaining  to  other 
teachers  how  to  go  to  work,  and  asks  the  teacher  to  give 
an  account  of  her  experience  at  one  of  the  conferences. 
At  his  suggestion,  the  pupils  give  a  talk  on  geography  at 
the  school  assembly,  using  lantern  slides  made  from  some 
of  their  own  pictures. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  term,  after  a  meeting  at  which  the 
supervisor  commends  the  work  of  some  of  the  teachers  and 
urges  others  to  try  to  work  out  their  own  projects,  a  teacher 
reiterates  the  statement:  ''If  he  wants  project  teaching 
let  him  assign  the  work  for  us  to  do."  Our  teacher  re- 


COOPERATION   WITH   SUPERVISORS  247 

spends:  "I  think  he  is  right  in  asking  us  to  do  some  of 
the  planning.  I  am  sure  that  it  is  an  advantage  to  us  to  be 
able  to  choose  the  project  which  appeals  most  strongly  to 
the  individual  class.  If  we  take  prescribed  projects  it 
will  be  harder  to  get  the  children  to  work  with  a  purpose 
of  their  own.  We  ought  to  be  able  ordinarily  to  tell  better 
what  suits  our  particular  classes  than  the  supervisor  can. 
At  least,  those  of  us  who  are  experienced  teachers  ought  to 
be  able  to  do  so.  I  don't  want  to  be  told  just  what  to  do. 
It  has  been  real  fun  to  work  the  problem  out,  and  I  think 
I  have  gained  power  in  teaching  and  a  better  understanding 
of  the  problem  of  education  by  trying  to  think  the  scheme 
out  for  myself.  It  seems  to  me  that  we  are  bound  to  make 
better  progress  if,  instead  of  letting  the  supervisor  do  all 
the  planning  and  following  his  directions,  we  all  do  our 
best  to  accomplish  the  purpose.  To  my  mind,  the  relation 
of  supervisors  and  professional  teachers  should  not  be  that 
of  directing  and  following  directions  as  in  a  military  organi- 
zation but  rather  cooperation  under  leadership." 


PRINCIPLES  IN  REGARD  TO  RELATIONSHIP 
WITH  SUPERVISORS 

The  purposes  of  supervision  are : 

a.  To  secure  unity  of  effort  of  all  who  participate  in 
the  work  of  the  school  system. 

b.  To  give  help  and  guidance  to  the  teacher,  especially 
to  one  who  is  new  in  the  work. 

c.  To  get  the  best  possible  results  in  carrying  out  the 
purposes  of  the  school  system. 

Supervisors  have,  or  should  have,  a  more  comprehensive 
view  of  purposes,  methods,  and  accomplishment  than  the 
individual  teacher  has.  The  supervisor  should  know  more 


248  RELATIONSHIP    WITH   SUPERVISORS 

of  the  subject  matter  and  method  in  his  field  than  the  in- 
dividual teacher  is  likely  to  know. 

3.  The  teacher  and  supervisor  should  have  common  purposes. 
The  relationship  should  be  one  of  cooperation. 

4.  The  teacher  should  feel  responsibility  for  helping  to  get  the 
greatest  benefit  for  the  school  which  supervision  can  give. 
She  should  take  the  initiative  where  this  seems  to  be  neces- 
sary for  the  best  results.     She  should  not  feel  that  it  is  all 
"  up  to  the  supervisor." 

5.  The  relationship  between  teacher  and  supervisor  should  be 
professional,  not  personal.    The  accomplishment  of  purposes, 
rather  than  personal  feelings,  likes,  and  dislikes,  should  be 
the  important  factor.     As  in  all  cooperative  work,  each  one 
must  make  allowances  for  individual  peculiarities,  temporary 
aberrations,    etc.     Misunderstandings    are    very  common. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  when  one  can  believe  in  the 
other  fellow's  good  intentions  and  when  one  helps  the  other 
fellow  to  do  his  best. 

6.  Ability  to  accept  and  make  use  of  criticism  is  important  in 
any  cooperative  relationship. 

7.  Tact  is  a  desirable  trait,  but  frankness  is  even  more  important 
between  people  who  sincerely  wish  to  accomplish  something 
by  working  together. 

8.  Jealousy  is  a  deep-seated  instinct  but  the  "good  sport" 
does  not  allow  himself  to  show  it.     He  makes  a  point  of 
showing  interest  in  the  success  of  a  person  who  has  received 
a  coveted  promotion  and  gives  as  much  help  as  he  can.     He 
is  scrupulously  careful  not  to  say  anything  derogatory  about 
the  other  person. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  169. — A  supervisor,  when  visiting  a  classroom, 
usually  spends  his  time  in  observing  the  work,  seldom  says  any- 
thing, sometimes  makes  notes.  The  teacher  has  the  feeling 
that  he  is  making  unfavorable  comments,  knows  that  she  is 
getting  no  help,  but  does  nothing  about  it. 

PROBLEM  170.  —  A  supervisor  sometimes  criticizes  a  lesson, 
pointing  out  defects  of  which  the  teacher  is  aware.  She  feels 


RELATIONSHIP    WITH   SUPERVISORS  249 

that  he  has  formed  a  false  impression  of  her  ability.  He  never 
happens  in  when  she  is  doing  her  best  work. 

PROBLEM  171.  —  A  supervisor  always  commends  a  teacher 
even  when  the  latter  knows  that  the  work  has  not  been  good, 
she  has  many  nice  things  to  say  and  merely  ventures  to  suggest 
one  or  two  things  that  she  might  care  to  try. 

PROBLEM  172.  —  A  supervisor  disapproves  of  a  teacher's 
methods,  explains  what  he  regards  as  a  better  one.  The  teacher 
argues  the  point,  remains  unconvinced,  and  sticks  to  her  own 
plan. 

PROBLEM  173.  —  A  supervisor  furnishes  exact  outlines  of  the 
work  to  be  done,  and  insists  that  teachers  follow  them  closely. 
A  teacher  complains  that  she  is  given  no  opportunity  to  exercise 
initiative.  She  is  sure  that  she  could  get  better  results  if  per- 
mitted to  work  out  her  own  scheme. 

PROBLEM  174.  —  A  supervisor  makes  a  casual  remark  which 
hurts  the  teacher's  feelings.  The  teacher  cherishes  the  injury 
and  relates  the  occurrence  to  others  but  says  nothing  to  the 
supervisor. 

PROBLEM  176.  —  A  conference  is  called  to  discuss  course  of 
study  outlines.  The  work  taken  up  contains  very  little  that  is 
new  to  some  teachers.  They  take  no  part  in  the  conference 
and  feel  that  their  time  is  wasted. 

PROBLEM  176.  —  The  subject  of  a  conference  is  announced  a 
week  or  two  in  advance.  Only  a  few  take  an  active  part  in  the 
conference.  Some  have  given  no  thought  to  the  subject.  All 
go  away  with  a  feeling  of  disappointment. 

PROBLEM  177.  —  Teachers  are  asked  to  make  suggestions  which 
will  enable  the  supervisor  to  be  of  as  much  help  as  possible. 

PROBLEM  178.  —  A  group  of  teachers  are  conversing.  One 
maintains  that  supervisors  are  the  bane  of  a  teacher's  life.  They 
just  mean  more  meetings  and  interference  with  a  teacher's  own 
work.  She  thinks  it  would  be  better  to  do  away  with  supervisors, 
says  that  those  who  can't  get  along  without  supervision  ought 


250  RELATIONSHIP    WITH   SUPERVISORS 

not  to  be  teaching  anyway.  Another  member  of  the  group 
disagrees  and  attempts  to  convince  the  others  that  supervision 
is  important. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,  Chapter 

XVII. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Engelhardt,  N.,  The  Classroom  Teacher,  Chapter 

III. 
Wagner,  C.  A.,  Common  Sense  in  School  Supervision. 


CHAPTER  XH 

PROBLEMS   OF   RELATIONSHIP 
WITH  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

ACCEPTING  CRITICISM;    COOPERATION  WITH  SUPERIN- 
TENDENT;   ASSIGNMENTS  TO  POSTS;    CONTRACTS 

PROBLEM  179.  —  A  teacher  is  requested  to  come  to  the  prin- 
cipal's office.  The  principal  says:  "  Miss  A.,  I  have  noticed 
that  you  are  frequently  tardy  in  arriving  at  the  school  in  the 
morning.  The  rules  require  teachers  to  be  in  their  rooms  at 
least  fifteen  minutes  before  the  opening  of  school.  You  are 
expected  to  comply  with  that  requirement  punctiliously.  If 
anything  which  you  cannot  control  prevents  your  reaching 
school  on  time,  please  explain  the  circumstances  as  soon  as 
possible."  The  teacher  replies  with  some  heat,  "  I  have  not 
been  late  more  than  two  or  three  times  this  year  and  then  only 
a  minute  or  two."  The  principal  turns  to  a  record  and  gives 
the  dates  of  four  cases  of  tardiness  within  two  weeks.  The 
teacher  thereupon  walks  out  of  the  room,  pale  with  anger. 
It  is  some  time  before  she  regains  her  composure.  Later  in  the 
day  she  talks  to  a  friend  about  the  occurrence  and  remarks  on 
the  meanness  of  the  principal  in  spying  on  a  teacher.  This  idea 
impresses  itself  on  her  mind  very  strongly.  She  declares  that 
the  principal  has  a  grudge  against  her,  that  there  are  plenty  of 
other  teachers  who  are  worse  offenders  than  she  and  he  is  as 
sweet  as  honey  to  them.  In  the  evening  she  talks  with  some 
teachers  from  another  school.  They  encourage  her  in  her  atti- 
tude, saying  that  things  are  much  more  easy  going  in  their 
school.  The  principal  is  frequently  late  himself  and  the  fifteen 
minute  rule  is  a  dead  letter.  They  advise  her  to  try  to  be 
transferred  at  the  first  opportunity. 

DURING  the  next  week  or  so,   the  teacher  nurses  her 
injured  pride.     She  is  careful  to  be  punctual  but,  whenever 

251 


252  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

she  meets  the  principal,  she  responds  to  his  friendly  "good- 
morning"  with  a  curt  reply  and  a  frozen  countenance.  The 
principal  does  not  appear  to  notice  this  and  she  is  secretly 
disappointed  that  he  is  not  more  contrite  over  his  rude 
treatment  of  her.  She  cannot  help  feeling  that  she  is 
behaving  childishly  and  lowering  herself  in  his  estimation. 

At  her  next  meeting  with  the  group  of  teachers  who  had 
suggested  that  she  ask  to  be  transferred  to  their  school, 
the  discussion  is  resumed.  One  of  the  teachers  says : 
"Mr.  A.  doesn't  bother  about  petty  regulations.  He  never 
gets  to  his  office  until  the  last  minute  and  he  generally 
leaves  as  soon  as  school  is  over."  To  her  surprise,  our 
teacher  finds  herself  defending  her  own  principal.  "He  is 
always  the  first  one  in  the  building  and  often  stays  until 
six  o'clock.  If  I  have  occasion  to  call  him  up  on  Saturday 
morning,  I  almost  always  find  him  at  his  office.  It  is  the 
school  joke  that  he  sleeps  in  the  building.  One  of  the 
teachers  who  got  to  school  at  eight  o'clock  one  morning 
found  him  going  about  from  room  to  room,  in  his  shirt 
sleeves,  looking  at  thermometers.  The  janitor  was  sick 
and  he  had  been  attending  to  the  furnace  for  two  hours. 
I  think  he  works  too  hard  but  I  respect  him  for  putting  his 
whole  heart  into  the  school.  I  should  not  want  to  work 
for  a  principal  who  did  not  care  how  things  went." 

This  involuntary  plea  as  champion  of  the  man  who  has 
hurt  her  feelings  changes  the  teacher's  set  of  mind  and 
opens  the  way  for  calmer  reflection.  She  realizes  that  to 
one  who  has  such  a  high  sense  of  responsibility  as  her 
principal  manifests  and  who  gives  such  careful  attention 
to  details  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  school,  such  a  matter 
as  tardiness  of  teachers  would  naturally  appear  a  serious 


ACCEPTING   CRITICISM  253 

problem.  She  wonders  why  he  did  not  call  her  to  account 
more  promptly  until  it  occurs  to  her  that  perhaps  he  may 
have  dreaded  the  interview  and  postponed  it  until  compelled 
by  a  sense  of  duty.  She  recalls  her  own  feelings  and 
behavior  with  increasing  dissatisfaction.  Her  imputation 
of  spying  now  seems  particularly  mean.  Instead  of  a 
sneaking  effort  to  "get  something  on"  a  teacher,  his  be- 
havior appears,  in  her  new  mood,  to  be  more  like  con- 
scientious devotion  to  duty  —  possibly  an  unpleasant  duty. 
She  is  ashamed  of  her  instinctive  effort  to  excuse  herself 
by  minimizing  the  amount  of  her  tardiness  and  suggesting 
that  worse  offenders  have  escaped  rebuke. 

In  a  mood  that  is  a  combination  of  self-depreciation  and 
exaltation,  she  goes  to  the  principal  and  says:  "Mr.  B., 
I  have  come  to  apologize  for  acting  like  a  baby.  I  got  what 
I  deserved  and  I  ought  to  have  thanked  you  for  it.  I  do 
thank  you  now  and  I  want  you  to  know  that  you  can  count 
on  my  help  in  your  work  for  the  school." 

The  principal  beams  as  he  grasps  her  hand.  "That's 
the  most  encouraging  thing,"  he  declares,  "that  has  hap- 
pened to  me  in  a  long  time.  But  don't  be  too  hard  on 
yourself,"  he  adds.  "The  ability  to  accept  criticism  is  a 
rare  accomplishment  among  people  of  spirit.  Many 
people  become  hardened  to  it  or  learn  to  accept  it  silently 
through  fear  of  consequences,  but  among  self-respecting 
men  and  women  such  as  make  up  the  teaching  corps  of  the 
average  school,  there  seem  to  be  few  who  have  learned  to 
accept  criticism  without  an  emotional  reaction  which  up- 
sets their  judgment. 

The  reason  why  your  statement  gives  me  so  much  pleas- 
ure, -  -  apart  from  your  renewal  of  cordiality  which  I  have 


254  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

missed  and  your  offer  of  cooperation  which  warms  my  heart 
-  is  that  it  restores  my  faith  in  the  possibility  of  a  relation- 
ship between  teachers  and  administrative  officers  which 
would  increase  school  efficiency  to  a  marked  degree.  I 
have  discussed  the  matter  with  principals  very  often  and 
the  belief  is  almost  universal  among  them  that  one  must  be 
exceedingly  careful  how  one  criticizes  a  teacher.  Many 
and  many  a  time  I  have  refrained  from  calling  a  teacher's 
attention  to  some  delinquency  or  opportunity  for  improve- 
ment, for  fear  that  wounded  sensibilities  would  enter  the 
situation  and  the  result  would  be  loss  instead  of  gain. 
Many  principals,  under  the  influence  of  this  belief,  have 
formed  the  habit  of  giving  unmerited  praise  and  refrain- 
ing altogether  from  adverse  criticism.  Others  discuss 
individual  shortcomings  in  general  terms  at  teachers' 
meetings,  in  the  hope  that  the  delinquents  will  take  the 
admonition  to  heart,  without  regarding  it  as  a  personal 
rebuke.  If  teachers  and  principals  could  learn  to  talk  to 
each  other,  man  to  man,  pointing  out  faults  and  needed 
improvements  without  personal  resentment  but  solely  in  a 
spirit  of  service  to  the  school,  we  could  go  ahead  with  a 
rush." 

"I  have  heard  teachers  discuss  the  same  thing,"  the 
teacher  interposes.  "I  have  heard  them  laugh  about 
principals  who  are  always  playing  Pollyanna,  and  declare 
that  they  would  rather  have  a  man  come  down  hard  once 
in  a  while." 

"I  have  heard  such  remarks  too,"  the  principal  rejoins, 
"and  I  know  some  principals  of  a  very  strong  or  very 
winning  personality  who  can  talk  to  a  teacher  like  a  'Dutch 
uncle'  without  arousing  resentment,  but  it  is  a  very  real 


COOPERATION    WITH   SUPERINTENDENT  255 

problem  nevertheless  and  one  which  has  worried  me  a 
great  deal." 

"Well,  you  won't  have  to  worry  any  more  about  me" 
the  teacher  remarks  as  she  rises  to  go.  "Hereafter,  please 
don't  try  to  break  the  news  gently  but  tell  me  the  worst 
at  once.  I'd  like  to  see  whether  I'm  cold-blooded  enough 
to  hear  the  truth  about  myself."  She  hesitates  a  moment 
and  then  says :  "I  offered  to  help  you  and,  if  you  are  willing 
to  trust  me,  I  should  like  to  begin  with  this  problem  which 
worries  you.  I  think  I  can  interest  the  other  teachers  in 
the  matter  and  I  am  hopeful  that  we  can  all  get  together 
on  the  relationship  of  man  to  man." 

PROBLEM  180.  —  A  new  superintendent  requires  teachers  to 
make  various  reports  to  which  they  have  not  been  accustomed. 
Some  of  them  find  the  work  tedious  and  exacting.  They  com- 
plain about  the  matter  to  friends  and,  in  conversations  around 
boarding-house  tables,  make  humorous  exaggerations  of  the 
superintendent's  worship  of  statistics.  One  or  two  teachers 
who  are  intimate  with  members  of  the  board  of  education  give 
similar  accounts  to  these  officials.  The  superintendent  gets 
his  first  intimation  of  the  trouble  from  a  "Letter  to  the  Editor  " 
of  the  local  paper.  He  calls  a  meeting  of  the  teachers,  explains 
the  purpose  of  the  reports,  points  out  the  injury  to  the  schools 
which  a  general  agitation  is  causing,  and  invites  teachers  who 
have  any  suggestions  for  improvement  to  bring  them  to  him. 

The  superintendent,  whose  previous  experience  as  prin- 
cipal of  a  single  school  with  comparatively  few  teachers  has 
led  him  to  expect  a  prompt  response  to  his  appeal,  is  sur- 
prised and  disappointed  when  a  week  passes  with  no  attempt 
on  the  part  of  teachers  to  discuss  the  matter  with  him.  The 
newspapers  foster  the  controversy  by  printing  every  day 
editorials  and  letters  in  which  the  absurdity  of  new-fangled 
notions  and  the  sufferings  of  oppressed  teachers  are  set 


256  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

forth  with  journalistic  abandon.  The  superintendent  learns 
that  teachers  are  becoming  more  and  more  agitated  and 
that  a  petition  is  in  circulation  among  the  townspeople, 
urging  the  board  of  education  to  suppress  the  burdensome 
requirements.  He  decides  to  ask  a  few  of  the  most  thought- 
ful teachers  to  discuss  the  problem  with  him. 

He  opens  the  conference  by  saying:  "This  situation 
puzzles  me.  The  reports  which  I  have  called  for  are  in 
accordance  with  recommendations  made  by  men  who  have 
made  very  careful  study  of  school  administration.  I  have 
been  hampered  in  my  effort  to  learn  the  exact  condition 
of  the  schools  by  lack  of  such  data  for  previous  years.  Why 
should  teachers  oppose  an  effort  to  improve  the  schools? 
If  they  think  I  am  wrong  in  my  estimate  of  the  value  of  the 
facts  which  I  have  asked  for,  why  do  they  not  come  and 
discuss  the  matter?" 

One  of  the  teachers  replies :  "They  do  not  come  to  you 
because  they  have  no  idea  that  they  could  convince  you 
that  you  are  wrong.  They  are  rather  afraid  of  you  and 
have  no  confidence  in  their  ability  to  defeat  you  in  an 
argument.  In  spite  of  your  invitation,  they  probably 
think  that  you  would  resent  interference  by  a  teacher." 
Another  of  the  group  says:  "But  teachers  are  not  inten- 
tionally opposing  the  improvement  of  the  schools.  They 
think  that  they  are  being  overburdened  in  order  that 
you  may  pile  up  statistics  which  nobody  will  ever  look  at. 
The  teachers  in  one  school  worked  until  after  six  trying  to 
make  their  report  check  and  one  of  them  got  so  nervous  that 
she  was  sick  for  several  days  afterwards.  Then  when  the 
report  was  handed  in,  it  was  full  of  mistakes  and  had  to  be 
done  over.  Naturally  the  teachers  were  excited  and  com- 


COOPERATION   WITH   SUPERINTENDENT  257 

plained  bitterly."  Another  adds:  "The  trouble  has  been 
fostered  by  people  outside  the  schools.  They  seem  to 
delight  in  a  row  and  they  have  circulated  stories  that 
teachers  never  expected  to  be  repeated." 

"But  why  didn't  they  come  to  me  when  they  had  trouble 
with  the  report?  I  could  have  straightened  out  the  diffi- 
culty in  a  few  minutes.  Why  did  they  make  it  boarding- 
house  gossip ?  "  "Human  nature,  I  guess,"  one  of  the  older 
teachers  replies.  "We  have  had  enough  trouble  from 
gossip  in  years  past  to  know  better  by  this  time,  but  there 
seems  to  be  an  overpowering  instinct  to  tell  the  world  about 
one's  troubles  when  somebody  else  can  be  blamed  for  them." 

"Well,"  says  the  superintendent,  "I  understand  the 
situation  much  better  now.  The  question  is,  'How  are  we 
to  get  out  of  it  ?  "  Several  suggestions  are  offered,  such  as 
simplifying  the  reports,  holding  a  mass  meeting  of  the 
teachers,  and  leaving  it  to  the  board  of  education  to  render 
a  decision.  One  of  the  teachers  says:  "I  think  that  we 
ought  to  be  able  to  work  out  this  problem  ourselves.  Mr.  C. 
is  working  for  the  interest  of  the  schools.  We  teachers 
want  the  same  result,  however  much  we  may  differ  in  regard 
to  method.  If  we  can  find  some  way  of  attacking  the  diffi- 
culty in  a  spirit  of  cooperation,  we  ought  to  be  able  to  settle 
it  without  a  bitter  controversy  and  a  decision  which  would 
mean  defeat  for  one  side." 

After  more  discussion,  it  is  decided  to  have  a  representa- 
tive committee  by  the  election  of  delegates  from  each  school 
to  meet  with  the  superintendent  and  principals.  The 
teachers  undertake  to  get  support  for  the  plan  of  solving 
the  problem  by  cooperation. 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  representative  committee,  the 

E.    T.    PROB.  —  I? 


258  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

superintendent  says :   "  As  I  analyze  the  situation,  we  shall 
do  well  to  arrange  our  discussion  in  some  such  way  as  this : 

1.  Relation  of  teachers  and  superintendent  in  dealing 
with  any  administrative  problem  which  involves  possible 
misunderstanding  or  serious  difference  of  opinion. 

2.  Relation  of  the  school  staff  to  public  opinion  in  matters 
of  school  procedure. 

3.  Method   of   solving  problems   due   to   difference   of 
opinion  in  regard  to  administrative  requirements. 

4.  The  specific  problem  of  the  new  reports." 

The  members  of  the  committee  are  not  quite  sure  what 
the  superintendent  has  up  his  sleeve,  but  as  nobody  has  any 
better  plan  to  propose,  no  objection  is  raised  to  his  program. 
The  discussion  is  at  times  discursive  and  necessitates  two 
meetings.  Some  of  the  teachers  are  unwilling  to  allow  their 
minds  to  wander  from  the  determination  that  the  reports 
must  go,  but  the  superintendent  keeps  bringing  the  argu- 
ment back  to  the  points  at  issue  and  consistently  keeps  to 
the  fore  the  purpose  of  furthering  the  interests  of  the 
schools.  By  the  end  of  the  second  session,  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  have  been  generally  accepted. 

i.  School  problems  should  be  dealt  with  in  a  spirit  of 
cooperation.  Everyone  concerned  should  try  to  devote 
himself  to  the  general  welfare  of  the  schools  and  subor- 
dinate personal  convictions  and  personal  comfort  to  this 
aim.  The  superintendent  has  the  principal  responsibility 
in  administering  the  schools,  and  teachers  should  cooperate 
with  him  in  making  a  fair  test  of  plans  which  he  considers 
important.  On  the  other  hand,  he  should  be  sympathetic 
with  teachers'  difficulties,  try  to  see  that  their  duties  are 
not  unnecessarily  burdensome,  take  pains  to  have  them 


COOPERATION    WITH   SUPERINTENDENT  259 

understand  the  purpose  of  his  requirements,  and  welcome 
their  criticisms,  when  made  in  a  spirit  of  helpfulness. 

2.  Every  member  of  the  school  staff  should  avoid  as  far 
as  possible,  action  which  may  give  the  impression  that  there 
is  lack  of  harmony  within  the  schools.     Every  effort  should 
be  made  to  settle  grievances  by  face-to-face  discussion  of 
those  directly  concerned.     Gossip  should  be  strictly  taboo. 
A  teacher  should  never  "go  over  the  head"  of  the  superin- 
tendent or  principal  until  an  effort  has  been  made  to  settle 
the  matter  directly.     If  such  effort  proves  futile  and  the 
teacher  believes  that  the  welfare  of  the  schools  is  seriously 
involved,  he  should  ask  to  have  the  matter  referred  to  the 
board  of  education.     If  this  should  be  refused,  it  would  be 
his  duty  to  go  to  the  board  himself. 

3.  Problems    of    administrative    procedure    should    be 
settled,  as  far  as  possible,  on  an  impersonal  basis  by  dis- 
cussion or  by  experiment  with  unprejudiced  study  of  results. 
Everyone  should  strive  to  maintain  an  open  mind  and  aid 
in  making  the  test  a  fair  one,  until  the  results  are  obtained. 

4.  The  members  of  the  representative  committee  will 
undertake  to  secure  cooperation  in  giving  a  fair  trial  of  the 
new  reports.     The  superintendent  will  explain  their  purpose 
carefully.     He  will  work  out  with  the  principals  a  method 
of  preparing  them  which  will  economize  time  and  effort 
as  far  as  possible.     At  the  end  of  the  year  he  will  explain 
just  what  use  he  has  made  of  them  and  show  by  concrete 
illustrations  what  benefit  the  schools  have  derived.     If  it 
is  not  clearly  evident  that  the  results  have  justified  the 
cost,  he  will  either  abandon  the  plan  or  discuss  the  matter 
with  this  committee  or  a  similar  one.     Inasmuch  as  the 
present  controversy  has  been  widely  advertised  by  discus- 


260  ADMINISTRATIVE    OFFICERS 

sion  and  press  comment,  it  will  be  advisable  to  announce 
publicly,  after  the  teachers  have  given  their  consent,  that 
it  has  been  agreed  among  the  members  of  the  teaching  staff 
to  suspend  judgment  until  the  matter  has  been  subjected 
to  a  careful  test. 

PROBLEM  181.  —  At  the  end  of  the  school  year,  six  teachers 
withdraw  from  one  of  the  schools  of  a  city  system.  In  another 
school  all  the  teachers  accept  reappointment.  The  superin- 
tendent feels  that  it  will  be  better  to  distribute  the  new  teachers 
between  the  two  schools  rather  than  to  have  so  many  beginners 
in  the  same  building.  He  therefore  proposes  to  transfer  two 
experienced  teachers  from  the  second  school  to  the  first.  These 
teachers  have  been  in  the  school  for  several  years,  are  attached 
to  the  principal,  and  are  very  friendly  with  the  other  teachers. 
Neither  of  them  is  willing  to  go.  The  superintendent  says : 
"  Please  think  it  over.  I  do  not  wish  to  transfer  you  against 
your  will  and  I  should  not  ask  you  to  go  if  I  did  not  think  it 
important  for  the  good  of  the  schools.  If  you  have  any  better 
plan  to  suggest  I  should  be  glad  to  have  your  advice." 

The  two  teachers  discuss  the  matter  with  each  other  and 
with  other  teachers  in  the  school.  All  agree  that  the 
request  is  unreasonable.  One  says :  "  Don't  let  him  wheedle 
you  into  agreeing  to  the  scheme.  If  you  consent,  he  will 
be  transferring  teachers  right  and  left.  I  came  here  to 
teach  in  this  school  and  he  has  no  right  to  make  me  teach 
anywhere  else."  The  following  letter  is  constructed  with 
the  collaboration  of  the  two  self-styled  "goats"  and  sev- 
eral of  their  colleagues : 

Dear  Mr.  Patterson : 

We  have  considered  your  plan  as  you  requested  and  feel 
exactly  as  we  did  when  you  first  suggested  it.  We  feel  that  this 
is  our  school.  All  of  our  friends  are  here.  We  know  the  pupils 
and  the  parents.  To  start  all  over  in  another  school  would  be 
a  waste.  It  would  take  a  long  time  to  get  used  to  it,  and  as 


ASSIGNMENTS    TO   POSTS  261 

we  should  be  unhappy  we  could  not  help  doing  poorer  work. 
Is  it  not  very  important  that  teachers  should  be  happy  in  their 
work? 

If  it  is  necessary  to  transfer  anybody,  we  think  that  two  of 
the  newer  teachers  should  be  the  ones  to  go,  rather  than  those 
who  have  been  here  as  long  as  we  have.  It  would  not  be  so 
hard  for  them  to  change  as  for  us  who  have  grown  into  the  school. 
At  all  events  we  feel  that  the  teachers  of  long  service  should 
have  first  consideration. 

For  all  these  reasons  we  must  respectfully  decline  to  agree 
to  the  proposed  plan  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  us. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Helen  Simpson 
Margaret  Watkins 

Each  teacher  receives  next  day  a  note  from  the  superin- 
tendent thanking  her  for  her  frank  statement  and  saying 
that  he  will  not  press  the  matter.  He  requests  her  to 
attend  a  conference  of  several  of  the  most  experienced 
teachers  to  consider  the  whole  question  of  transfers. 

The  superintendent  explains  the  situation  to  the  assem- 
bled group  and  says :  "I  have  always  believed  that,  for  the 
highest  efficiency,  we  should  move  teachers  about  more  or 
less  in  order  to  have  the  strongest  people  in  the  most  diffi- 
cult positions.  For  that  reason,  we  never  make  a  contract 
with  a  teacher  for  a  specific  post.  He  is  engaged  as  a  mem- 
ber of  our  staff  and  theoretically  it  is  expected  that  he  will 
be  assigned  to  the  place  where  he  is  most  needed.  I  say 
'  theoretically '  because  in  practice  we  have  made  very  few 
shifts  except  when  teachers  themselves  have  sought  to  be 
transferred.  I  have  found  it  almost  impossible  to  get 
teachers  to  go  willingly  to  another  school  or  even  to  another 
grade  where  I  thought  that  they  were  more  needed.  When 
I  suggest  such  a  thing,  some  argue  and  some  weep  but 


262  ADMINISTRATIVE    OFFICERS 

hardly  anyone  is  willing.  I  might  order  the  changes, 
of  course.  The  board  of  education  gives  me  that  right, 
but  I  seldom  exercise  it  because  much,  if  not  all,  of  the 
benefit  would  be  lost  if  teachers  were  forced  to  move 
against  their  will.  Now  I  want  you  as  professional  teach- 
ers to  help  me  find  the  right  solution.  Will  you  forget, 
for  the  time  being,  your  interest  in  individual  schools 
and  regard  yourselves  as  members  of  a  council  of  profes- 
sional educators,  concerned  with  the  welfare  of  this  school 
system  as  a  whole  ?  I  would  like  to  have  you  consider  this 
question :  '  If  teachers'  feelings  did  not  enter  into  the 
matter,  would  it  make  for  efficiency  to  assign  a  particu- 
larly strong  teacher  to  a  particularly  difficult  post,  putting 
in  her  place  a  teacher  who  could  handle  the  easier  job  fairly 
well?'" 

The  teachers  suspect  a  trap  and  hesitate  to  say  "Yes." 
One  says :  "  One  class  might  lose  as  much  as  the  other  one 
gained."  "Would  that  be  so  if  each  teacher  did  his  best? 
The  teacher  of  less  ability  would  do  better  with  the  easier 
class  than  with  the  more  difficult  one,  would  he  not  ?  "  The 
teacher  assents  to  this.  "How  about  the  particularly 
strong  teacher?  Would  he  necessarily  do  poorer  work 
with  the  hard  class?"  "Not  if  he  took  it  as  a  challenge 
to  his  ability,"  someone  says.  "He  would  probably  exert 
himself  to  the  full,  and  do  even  better  work  than  in  the 
position  which  did  not  tax  his  full  strength." 

"Do  you  think  that  he  wrould  get  any  pleasure  in  the 
new  position?"  the  superintendent  asks.  "Certainly  he 
would  if  he  went  at  the  job  as  we  have  assumed.  There 
is  no  greater  pleasure  than  mastering  something  that  taxes 
all  one's  powers." 


ASSIGNMENTS    TO    POSTS  263 

"Will  you  agree,  then,  that  if  teachers  should  feel  real 
zest  in  undertaking  a  new  assignment,  given  them  because 
of  the  superintendent's  confidence  in  their  special  abilities, 
it  would  be  a  real  advantage  to  the  school  system  to  make 
occasional  transfers?"  "Yes,"  answers  one,  "but  as  you 
suggested  at  first,  it  is  all  theoretical.  Teachers  don't 
feel  that  way.  They  are  human  and  they  don't  consider  it 
fair  to  give  a  class  that  some  beginner  has  spoiled  to  a  good 
teacher  just  because,  by  working  her  head  off,  she  can 
straighten  it  out.  It  would  be  different  if  teachers  were 
paid  according  to  their  services." 

"That  is  a  good  point,"  the  superintendent  returns.  "I 
am  heartily  in  sympathy  with  the  idea  of  payment  according 
to  merit  and  I  hope  that  we  shall  have  it  one  of  these  days, 
but  we  all  know  that,  until  we  can  determine  merit  more 
exactly,  the  attempt  would  be  disastrous,  as  it  has  been  in 
so  many  places  where  it  has  been  tried.  For  the  present  a 
teacher  who  takes  a  hard  job  will  have  to  find  his  satisfaction 
in  the  consciousness  of  success  and  of  worthy  service." 

One  of  the  teachers  breaks  into  the  discussion  at  this 
point.  "I  do  not  believe,"  she  says,  "that  teachers  are 
really  so  dominated  by  self-interest  as  their  attitude  toward 
transfers  might  indicate.  Many  teachers  are  devoted  to 
their  schools  and  make  all  sorts  of  sacrifices  for  them.  They 
dislike  the  thought  of  giving  up  an  attractive  position  for 
one  which  looks  disagreeable,  but  if  they  once  caught  the 
idea  of  responsibility  for  the  success  of  the  school  system 
as  a  higher  ideal  than  loyalty  to  a  single  school,  I  think  that 
most  of  them  would  feel  honored  to  be  given  a  difficult 
problem." 

"I  think  so  too,"  the  superintendent  says,  "and  now  let 


264  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

us  see  whether  we  can  make  a  beginning.  I  have  called 
you  teachers  together  because  you  are  the  very  ones  upon 
whom  we  must  depend  if  we  are  to  act  as  a  real  team.  You 
are  all  skillful  teachers,  the  backbone  of  our  system.  If 
you  enter  into  the  plan  in  the  way  that  we  have  suggested 
as  a  possibility  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  making  it  a 
tradition  in  our  schools.  If  any  of  you  are  willing  to  volun- 
teer, we  shall  soon  have  a  chance  to  set  the  scheme  in 
motion." 

"You  may  count  on  me,"  one  says  instantly.  Several 
others  follow  suit.  The  two  who  had  just  declined  transfer 
whisper  together  and,  after  the  others  have  gone,  announce 
that  they  have  changed  their  minds.  "We're  going  to  be 
good  soldiers,"  one  remarks.  "We  would  have  resisted 
the  draft,  but  volunteering  is  another  matter." 

PROBLEM  182.  —  In  April  a  teacher  accepts  reappointment  for 
the  next  school  year.  Late  in  July  he  hears  of  a  vacancy  in 
another  school  system  which  pays  higher  salaries.  He  applies 
for  it  and  is  offered  the  position.  He  then  writes  to  the  super- 
intendent asking  to  be  released.  The  latter  replies  that  he 
cannot  release  the  teacher  from  his  engagement  without  injury 
to  the  schools.  The  teacher  considers  the  alternatives  of  re- 
jecting the  new  position  or  sending  in  his  resignation. 

The  teacher  explains  his  dilemma  to  a  friend  who  is  also 
a  teacher.  The  latter  congratulates  him  heartily  on  his 
new  appointment.  He  says:  "They  won't  hold  you  to 
your  contract.  They  may  try  to  bluff  you,  but  if  you  simply 
send  in  your  resignation,  they  can  do  nothing  but  accept 
it.  Teachers  are  constantly  doing  the  same  thing.  Your 
superintendent  has  no  right  to  prevent  your  getting  ahead. 
This  is  your  chance.  If  I  had  it,  I  should  not  hesitate  a 
moment." 


CONTRACTS  265 

This  conversation  relieves  the  mind  of  our  teacher  tem- 
porarily but  he  cannot  keep  his  thoughts  from  running  over 
and  over  the  problem.  He  finds  himself  constantly  arguing 
in  defense  of  his  intention  to  resign.  "It  is  unfair,"  he 
contends,  "to  bind  a  teacher  for  a  whole  year  and  not  per- 
mit him  to  try  for  an  attractive  vacancy.  Good  positions 
do  not  become  available  at  any  particular  time.  A  man 
has  got  to  be  ready  to  seize  an  opportunity  whenever  it 
comes,  if  he  ever  wants  to  get  ahead.  The  superintendent 
can  get  another  teacher  if  he  tries  hard  enough.  He  was 
mighty  mean  to  refuse  to  release  me."  All  the  time  the 
thought  is  in  the  teacher's  consciousness  of  what  the  other 
superintendent  will  think  of  him  if  he  writes  that  he  cannot 
accept  the  appointment.  When  the  offer  was  made,  he 
was  so  delighted  at  the  prospect  of  promotion  that  he  did 
not  lay  much  stress  on  his  obligation  to  his  present  employ- 
ers and,  assuming  that  he  would  be  released,  accepted  at 
once.  Now,  if  he  goes  back  on  his  new  agreement,  he  will 
never  be  given  another  opportunity  in  that  school  system. 

After  several  hours  of  uneasy  reflection,  during  which 
his  wife  has  chided  him  several  times  for  not  listening  when 
she  spoke  to  him  and  complained  that  he  is  getting  unbear- 
ably irritable,  he  mutters:  "I'll  settle  this  thing  now  and 
forget  it."  He  goes  to  the  telegraph  office  and  fills  out  a 
blank  :  "Sorry  notice  so  late.  Must  insist  you  accept  my 
resignation." 

"There!  That's  done,"  he  remarks  as  he  leaves  the 
office,  but  in  spite  of  his  determination,  he  is  unable  to  forget 
the  matter.  He  keeps  going  over  and  over  imaginary 
interviews  with  the  superintendent  and  pictures  the  latter 
reporting  the  case  to  the  board  of  education.  He  fears 


266  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

that  his  reputation  in  the  town  where  he  has  been  for 
several  years  will  be  injured  and  wonders  whether  the  facts 
will  come  out  in  the  paper  and  whether  it  will  make  any 
difference  in  the  friendships  which  he  and  his  wife  have 
made.  He  lies  awake  half  the  night  and  rises  unrefreshed. 

As  he  glances  over  the  morning  paper  during  breakfast, 
his  eye  falls  on  an  account  of  a  strike  in  one  of  the  great 
industries.  Prominence  is  given  to  the  fact  that  the  men 
have  repudiated  a  wage  agreement,  apparently  taking 
advantage  of  a  favorable  opportunity  to  enforce  new 
demands  instead  of  waiting  until  the  expiration  of  the 
agreement  when  they  might  be  in  a  less  strategic  position. 
He  has  frequently  argued  that  the  weak  spot  in  organized 
labor  is  its  irresponsibility,  that  when  men  fail  to  live  up 
to  their  agreements,  they  alienate  public  sympathy  and 
injure  their  cause.  It  comes  over  him  with  a  shock  that 
breaking  of  contracts  by  teachers  would,  in  the  same  way, 
damage  the  standing  of  the  teaching  profession.  He  recalls 
that,  in  a  recent  conversation  about  profiteering  in  which 
examples  of  selfishness  have  been  cited  in  various  professions 
as  well  as  in  business,  he  has  expatiated  on  the  unselfishness 
of  teachers  as  a  class.  He  decides  to  take  a  long  walk  and 
think  out  his  problem  calmly. 

He  admits  first  that  he  has  so  set  his  heart  upon  taking 
the  new  position  that  he  has  not  fairly  considered  possible 
arguments  on  the  other  side.  He  states  a  few  of  them : 

i.  Appointments  are  made  early  when  strong  teachers 
are  available.  The  superintendent  who  has  to  begin  a 
canvass  of  candidates  in  July  or  August  is  likely  to  find 
more  "lame  ducks"  than  capable  teachers  who  are  free 
to  accept  engagement. 


CONTRACTS  267 

2.  Withdrawal  of  a  teacher  late  in  the  season  is  almost 
sure  to  cause  a  loss  to  the  pupils  who  would  be  in  his  classes 
and  therefore  a  loss  to  the  public  for  whose  service  he  was 
engaged. 

3.  Breaking  of  a  contract  by  a  teacher  injures  the  stand- 
ing of  the  profession  as  well  as  his  own  reputation. 

4.  It  is  hardly  fair  to  the  superintendent,  who  has  worked 
all  the  spring  to  fill  his  staff,  to  send  him  a  resignation  when 
he  has  just  left  the  city  for  a  few  weeks'  rest. 

The  teacher  is  almost  ready  to  conclude  that  he  has  made 
a  mistake  in  sending  that  telegram,  but  again  the  thought 
occurs  to  him  that  if  no  teachers  could  make  a  change  after 
signing  an  agreement  in  the  early  spring,  a  person's  chance 
for  advancement  in  the  profession  would  be  seriously  cur- 
tailed. He  feels  that  the  growing  custom  of  binding 
teachers  for  more  than  a  year  in  advance  and  holding 
rigidly  to  the  agreement  is  not  fair  to  the  teachers  nor 
favorable  to  the  public  interest,  if  this  is  thought  of  in 
terms  of  the  state  or  nation. 

His  obligation  to  the  second  superintendent  is  easily 
interpreted  in  the  teacher's  present  state  of  mind.  The 
superintendent  is  entitled  to  an  explanation  and  an  apology, 
but  the  previous  agreement  takes  precedence.  The  applica- 
tion should  never  have  been  made,  without  the  approval  of 
those  with  whom  he  had  already  contracted. 

On  reaching  this  stage  in  his  reflections,  the  teacher's 
face  bears  a  different  expression.  His  mind  is  at  rest  and 
he  finishes  his  walk  with  an  elastic  step.  His  first  act  is  to 
send  another  telegram  :  "Disregard  my  wire  of  yesterday. 
Will  stick.  Letter  follows."  On  reaching  home  he  immedi- 
ately goes  to  his  desk  and  produces  the  following  letter : 


268  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

Dear  Mr.  J : 

If  you  have  received  my  second  telegram,  you  probably 
have  a  pretty  good  idea  of  the  mental  struggle  that  I  have  been 
going  through  during  the  past  twenty-four  hours.  I  wanted 
that  position  so  badly  that  I  made  black  seem  white,  or  at  least 
a  very  light  gray.  I  think  that  I  have  a  straight  view  of  the 
matter  now,  and  I  am  prepared  to  live  up  to  my  contract  since 
you  feel  that  you  cannot  release  me.  I  should  not  have  signed 
a  contract  for  next  year  without  conditions,  unless  I  was  prepared 
to  abide  by  it  fully.  I  do  not  think  that  I  shall  sign  such  a  rigid 
contract  again.  As  I  feel  now,  I  believe  that  I  shall  have  enough 
confidence  in  myself  to  take  a  risk  of  having  to  accept  a  less 
satisfactory  position,  for  the  sake  of  being  free  to  try  for  a  better 
one.  I  mean  to  begin  early  to  look  for  what  I  want  and  I  hope 
that  I  shall  be  able  to  find  it  before  the  reappointments  are  made. 
If  not,  I  shall  have  to  make  my  decision  to  accept  or  refuse  re- 
appointment,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  contract. 

However,  I  hope  that  before  that  time  comes  you  will  in- 
duce the  board  to  make  a  slight  change  in  the  form  of  contract. 
It  seems  to  me  that  at  present  many  boards  of  education  are 
going  too  far  in  the  attempt  to  get  the  best  for  their  own  schools. 
They  are  right  in  looking  out  for  the  interest  of  the  children  in 
their  towns  but  they  ought,  I  think,  to  consider  education  of 
children  as  a  state,  even  a  national  problem.  I  propose  that 
this  clause  be  inserted  in  the  contract:  'Provided  that  the  said 
John  Doe  shall  have  the  right  to  explain  to  the  said  board  any 
offer  of  another  position  which  he  may  receive  without  solicita- 
tion on  his  part  or  on  the  part  of  agents  employed  by  him  or  to 
ask  permission  to  apply  for  another  position  which  appears  to 
offer  greater  opportunities  for  service,  and  provided  that  said 
board  shall  release  said  John  Doe  from  this  contract  in  order 
that  he  may  accept  or  apply  for  such  position  whenever,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  board,  the  said  John  Doe  would  be  able  to 
render  more  important  service  to  the  state  or  the  nation  in  the 
position  sought  than  in  the  one  which  he  herewith  contracts 
to  fulfill.' 

Yours  sincerely, 

Edward  Harris 


TEACHER  AND   SUPERINTENDENT  269 

The  teacher  shows  the  letter  to  his  wife  and  has  the 
satisfaction  of  knowing  that  she  is  proud  of  him.  A  few 
days  later,  he  receives  this  message  from  the  superintendent : 
"  Bully  for  you.  Will  back  suggestion.  Promotion  will 
come  soon." 

PROBLEM  183.  —  A  superintendent  is  very  exacting.  He  issues 
directions  frequently  and  expects  teachers  to  follow  them.  One 
of  the  teachers  feels  that  a  plan  for  the  grading  of  pupils,  which 
has  just  been  announced,  is  unwise.  She  expresses  her  views  to 
another  teacher  who  has  taught  a  long  time  in  the  system.  The 
latter  says :  "  Forget  it.  If  you  want  to  stand  well  with  Mr.  B., 
just  follow  the  plan.  It  will  do  you  no  good  to  protest  against 
it."  The  first  teacher  is  confident  that  the  new  plan  will  not 
be  an  advantage  to  the  schools.  She  wonders  whether  there  is 
anything  which  she  ought  to  do  about  it. 

The  teacher  puzzles  over  the  question  from  time  to  time. 
The  orders  are  to  promote  every  pupil  who  has  already 
repeated  the  grade,  regardless  of  his  standing.  She  agrees 
that  the  necessity  of  a  second  or  third  repetition  indicates 
that  something  is  wrong,  but  she  cannot  believe  that  merely 
advancing  a  pupil,  who  cannot  do  the  work  of  the  lower 
grade,  is  an  adequate  solution.  With  certain  individuals 
in  mind,  she  is  convinced  that  the  superintendent's  plan 
will  do  more  harm  than  good. 

"Well,  it's  not  my  responsibility,"  she  thinks  during  one 
1  of  her  periods  of  mental  protest.  "If  Mr.  B.  does  not  seek 
or  welcome  the  criticism  of  teachers  upon  his  plans,  he  must 
take  the  whole  blame  for  any  harm  which  may  come  be- 
cause of  them."  She  gradually  accepts  the  prevailing 
practice  of  carrying  out  orders  and  disclaiming  responsibility 
for  results,  but  at  the  same  time  she  finds  her  enthusiasm 
for  work  diminishing.  "This  won't  do,"  she  says  to  her- 


270  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

self  presently.  "If  I  don't  do  something  quickly,  I  shall 
be  a  perfect  cog.  Unless  I  can  get  a  chance  to  put  my  whole 
self  into  this  job,  I  must  find  one  where  I  can.  It  is  not 
true  that  I  have  no  responsibility  for  weak  spots  that  I  can 
see  in  our  schools.  I  have  always  despised  people  who 
turn  away  when  they  see  an  animal  abused.  If  I  allow 
children  to  be  injured  without  doing  my  best  to  stop  it,  I 
am  doing  the  same  thing,  only  worse.  Mr.  B.  isn't  con- 
sciously injuring  children.  He  is  sure  that  he  is  acting  in 
their  interest,  and  that  will  make  it  doubly  hard  to  convince 
him,  but  it  is  my  duty  to  try." 

She  goes  to  the  superintendent  and  explains  as  tactfully 
as  she  can,  her  doubts  about  the  grading  of  backward  pupils. 
He  listens  to  her  statement  but  is  evidently  not  impressed 
by  it.  He  is  sure  that  his  plan  is  an  improvement  over  the 
usual  practice  and  thinks  that  the  teacher  is  resisting 
progress.  Although  he  feels  that  she  is  rather  presumptuous 
in  questioning  a  direction  from  the  head  of  the  system  who 
has  had  a  long  experience  in  school  work,  he  patiently 
explains  the  evils  of  retardation  and  the  stimulating  effect 
of  advancement  upon  pupils  who  have  become  discouraged. 
The  teacher  tries  to  tell  him  that  she  too  is  anxious  to  remedy 
the  evil  and  is  simply  dissatisfied  with  the  proposed  method, 
but  she  realizes  that  she  has  made  a  bad  impression  and  that 
further  argument  is  useless. 

On  her  way  home  she  makes  plans  for  seeking  another 
position  for  the  following  year,  but  before  she  actually 
takes  any  steps  in  that  direction,  her  attention  is  turned  to  a 
more  promising  alternative.  She  finds  in  an  educational 
magazine  an  article  on  mental  tests  and  their  use  in  modify- 
ing the  education  of  backward  children.  This  captures 


TEACHER  AND  SUPERINTENDENT          271 

her  interest  and,  when  she  learns  that  courses  in  mental 
measurement  are  to  be  offered  in  the  summer  school  of 
one  of  the  universities,  she  promptly  makes  arrangements 
to  attend.  As  she  reads  more  articles  on  the  subject  and 
learns  that  some  progress  has  already  been  made  in  adapting 
work  to  the  abilities  of  deficient  pupils,  it  occurs  to  her  that 
the  outcome  of  her  interview  with  the  superintendent  was 
partly  her  own  fault.  She  had  limited  herself  to  objections 
to  his  plan,  since  she  had  no  constructive  remedy  to  offer. 
If  she  could  show  him  how  retarded  pupils  might  be  able 
to  progress  without  merely  moving  them  into  a  higher 
grade,  he  might  adopt  the  suggestion. 

In  the  fall,  she  tells  him  about  her  summer  courses  and 
offers  to  loan  him  some  of  her  books  if  he  would  care  to 
look  them  over.  She  takes  the  first  opportunity  to  discuss 
the  books  with  him  and,  as  she  finds  him  interested,  she 
asks  if  he  would  like  to  have  her  test  some  of  the  pupils. 
He  assents  and  observes  the  first  few  tests  carefully.  She 
shows  him  the  results  from  time  to  time.  One  of  the  pupils 
who  was  promoted  to  fifth  grade  in  accordance  with  the 
superintendent's  directions  is  found  to  have  a  mental  age 
corresponding  to  the  average  age  for  second  grade  and 
nearly  all  of  those  who  have  been  much  retarded  are  men- 
tally below  the  grades  in  which  they  have  been  placed. 

A  few  weeks  before  the  end  of  the  term,  the  superintendent 
calls  the  teacher  to  his  office  and  explains  that  he  has  just 
secured  the  consent  of  the  board  of  education  to  establish  a 
special  class  for  mental  defectives  and  wishes  her  to  take 
charge  of  it. 


272  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICERS 

PRINCIPLES  IN  REGARD  TO  RELATIONSHIP 
WITH  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICERS 

1.  The  function  of  the  administrative  officer  is  to  "  manage  ": 
to  make  plans,  to  give  directions,  to  anticipate  and  adjust 
difficulties,  to  lead,  in  order  that  the  school  or  the  school  sys- 
tem may  carry  out  its  purpose  efficiently. 

2.  In  a  one-room  school,  the  teacher  is  also  the  manager  to  a 
large  extent.     In  a  larger  system,  involving  many  people,  it 
is  more  economical  and  more  effective  to  have  a  special 
manager. 

5.  The  relationship  of  administrative  officer  and  teacher  in 
a  school  system  should  be  not  that  of  autocratic  direction 
and  obedience,  but  cooperation  in  carrying  out  a  common 
purpose.  The  functions  of  the  two  are  different,  but  the 
purpose  should  be  the  same. 

4.  The  relationship  should  be  professional,  not  personal.     De- 
votion to  the  purpose  of  the  school,  subordination  of  personal 
convenience  and  personal  feelings  to  the  welfare  of  the  school, 
and  frankness  in  dealing  with  misunderstandings  or  differ- 
ences of  opinion  are  necessary  to  an  effective  cooperation. 

5.  Administrative  officers,  like   teachers,   are  human.     They 
have  their  peculiarities,  weaknesses,  and  prejudices.     They 
are  usually  well  meaning.     Like  other  people,  they  usually 
respond  to  friendliness,  appreciation,  and  willingness  to  coop- 
erate.   Suspicion,  indifference,  opposition,  or  unwillingness  to 
cooperate  on  the  part  of  their  associates  are  likely  to  make 
them  react  in  a  similar  manner.    Although  an  administrator 
should  be  tactful,  sympathetic,  and  just,  the  teacher  who  is 
truly  professional  will  not  dwell  upon  his  shortcomings  in 
these  directions,  but  will  accept  his  peculiarities  as  a  part  of 
her  problem  and  strive  to  "  allow  for  them  "  in  order  to 
accomplish  her  purpose. 

6.  For  the  best  results  there  must  be  a  sympathetic  under- 
standing of  each  other's  work.     A  teacher  must  not  expect 
favors  nor  must  the  administrative  officer  be  blind  to  the 
conditions  which  affect  the  teacher's  work. 

7.  The  teacher  should  accept  responsibility  for  helping  to  make 
administration  effective.     The  administrative  officer  should 
welcome  suggestions  and  criticisms  from  the  teacher. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS  273 

8.  A  teacher  who  is  truly  professional  will  be  loyal  to  the  system 
in  which  he  works.    He  will  not  let  grudges  against  superiors 
interfere  with  his  best  effort  for  the  success  of  the  system. 
He  will  not  participate  in  gossip.     He  will  not  "  go  over  the 
head"  of  his  principal  or  superintendent  by  appealing  to 
members  of  the  board  of  education  or  influential  citizens, 
but  will  take  any  criticisms  which  he  has  to  make  straight 
to  the  person  directly  concerned.     He  will  be  careful  to  do 
nothing  which  will  lower  the  "  morale  "  of  the  schools. 

9.  A  teacher  should  cultivate  the  ability  to  accept  criticism  or 
a  merited  rebuke  without  sullenness  or  rancor. 

10.  In  a  cooperative  enterprise  one  should  try  to  suppress  preju- 
dices. Don't  form  the  habit  of  looking  for  flaws  in  plans 
proposed  by  others.  It  is  better  to  look  first  for  the  pos- 
sible good  features. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  184.  —  A  teacher  has  some  difficulty  in  controlling 
her  class,  but  fears  to  make  it  known  to  the  principal.  She 
permits  some  rather  flagrant  misbehavior  in  order  to  avoid 
sending  pupils  to  the  principal. 

PROBLEM  185.  —  A  teacher  sends  pupils  to  the  principal's  office 
very  frequently  —  complains  that  the  principal  does  not  support 
her,  that  he  allows  pupils  to  return  to  her  class  without  punish- 
ing them. 

PROBLEM  186.  —  A  teacher,  becoming  exasperated  with  the 
persistent  misbehavior  of  a  boy,  sends  him  from  the  room  and 
sends  a  note  to  the  principal  that  she  will  not  tolerate  him  in 
her  classroom  again.  The  principal  says  that  she  has  no  au- 
thority to  exclude  a  pupil  from  the  class. 

PROBLEM  187.  —  A  teacher  is  a  candidate  for  promotion,  but  the 
superintendent  recommends  another.  She  regards  him  as  her 
enemy  and  feels  satisfaction  in  opposing  his  plans  whenever  an 
opportunity  is  presented. 

PROBLEM  188.  —  A  teacher  feels  that  the  superintendent   has 
formed  an  unfavorable  impression  of  her  from  one  or  two  slight 
occurrences.     She  is  sure  that  he  is  prejudiced  against  her. 
E.  T.  PROB.  —  18 


274  ADMINISTRATIVE    OFFICERS 

PROBLEM  189.  —  A  teacher  learns  that  a  new  policy  is  to  be 
introduced  which  seems  to  her  to  trespass  upon  teachers'  rights. 
She  talks  with  other  teachers  about  it  and  issues  a  call  for  an 
indignation  meeting  at  which  a  petition  is  drawn  up  urging  the 
board  of  education  to  withdraw  the  plan. 

PROBLEM  190.  —  The  principal  announces  some  new  regulations 
which  seem  arbitrary  and  unwise  to  one  of  the  teachers  who  has 
been  in  the  school  a  long  time.  These  edicts  of  successive 
principals  take  a  good  deal  of  the  joy  out  of  her  life  as  a  teacher. 

PROBLEM  191.  —  A  principal  assigns  an  especially  hard  class 
to  a  teacher,  because  he  has  confidence  in  her  ability  and  does 
not  wish  to  trust  the  work  to  a  weaker  teacher  to  whom  the 
class  would  naturally  belong.  He  does  not  explain  his  reason 
as  he  does  not  wish  to  disparage  one  teacher  to  another.  The 
teacher  feels  that  it  is  quite  unfair  and  an  example  of  favoritism. 

PROBLEM  192.  —  A  teacher  is  annoyed  by  many  interruptions 
in  the  form  of  notes  or  telephone  calls  or  visits  by  the  principal 
in  connection  with  administrative  details. 

PROBLEM  193.  —  A  principal  disagrees  with  a  teacher's  judg- 
ment in  regard  to  certain  promotions  and  reverses  her  decision. 
She  is  resentful  and  goes  to  the  superintendent  to  complain. 

PROBLEM  194.  —  At  a  meeting  of  teachers,  the  topic  for  dis- 
cussion is:  "  Should  Teachers  Have  a  Share  in  the  Administra- 
tion of  a  School?  "  One  teacher  declares  that  every  regulation 
and  every  new  plan  should  be  submitted  to  the  approval  of  the 
teachers.  Another  says  that  administrative  problems  are  not 
part  of  a  teacher's  function.  No  agreement  is  reached,  but  at 
the  close  of  the  meeting  the  chairman  expresses  the  opinion 
that  every  teacher  ought  to  think  the  question  out  and  reach  a 
definite  conviction. 

PROBLEM  195.  —  The  superintendent  asks  a  teacher  to  offer 
suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  the  schools. 

PROBLEM  196.  —  A  principal  is  not  reappointed.  He  has  a 
winning  personality,  is  very  friendly  with  the  teachers,  is  not 


ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS  275 

at  all  exacting  and  seldom  shows  any  dissatisfaction  with  the 
work  of  a  teacher.  The  teachers  realize  that  he  is  not  a  very 
strong  character  nor  a  very  efficient  leader,  but  they  like  him 
and  are  highly  indignant  at  what  they  regard  as  unjust  treatment. 
They  feel  that  he  is  being  persecuted  by  the  superintendent. 

PROBLEM  197.  —  In  her  first  year  in  a  school  system,  a  teacher 
has  not  done  strong  work.  She  has  had  some  difficulties  in 
discipline  and  has  not  made  much  effort  to  follow  the  few  sugges- 
tions which  the  principal  and  superintendent  have  given  her. 
Nevertheless,  she  has  not  been  conscious  of  any  very  serious 
shortcomings  on  her  own  part.  She  has  been  inclined  to  ascribe 
her  difficulties  to  the  previous  training  of  the  class  and  poor 
management  by  her  superior  officers.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
year  the  superintendent  tells  her  that  her  work  has  not  been 
strong  enough  to  warrant  reappointment.  She  expresses  great 
surprise  and  wants  to  know  what  charges  he  has  to  make  against 
her.  The  superintendent  replies  that  he  is  not  a  prosecutor  and 
is  making  no  charges.  He  points  out  one  or  two  weaknesses 
but  seems  unable  to  recall  many  specific  cases  in  which  her  work 
has  been  poor.  He  is  evidently  embarrassed  and  tries  to  soften 
the  blow,  but  it  is  clear  that  he  has  made  up  his  mind  not  to 
reappoint  her.  He  says  that  he  would  like  to  please  her,  but  he 
is  responsible  for  the  schools  and  cannot  conscientiously  retain 
a  teacher  whose  work  has  not  been  strong.  She  says  that  he 
should  have  warned  her.  She  feels  that  the  loss  of  her  position 
will  be  a  disgrace  and  will  prevent  her  getting  another  good 
place.  She  thinks  that  it  is  very  unfair.  After  a  while  she 
makes  up  her  mind  to  try  to  get  a  reappointment. 

PROBLEM  198.  —  A  high  school  teacher  is  asked  by  the  principal 
to  coach  a  basket  ball  team.  He  is  unwilling  to  do  it  unless  he 
is  given  extra  pay  for  this  service.  He  thinks  that  some  teachers 
are  asked  to  do  more  than  others. 

PROBLEM  199.  — •  A  teacher  asks  to  be  excused  an  hour  or  two 
before  the  close  of  school  for  a  week's  vacation,  in  order  that  she 
may  take  a  train  which  will  enable  her  to  reach  home  at  a  con- 
venient time.  The  superintendent  refuses  the  request  on  the 
ground  that  there  are  many  teachers  who  live  at  a  considerable 


276  ADMINISTRATIVE   OFFICERS 

distance  and  it  would  be  impracticable  to  allow  all  of  them  to 
go  early.  He  thinks  a  special  effort  should  be  made  to  have 
pupils  realize  that  vacation  does  not  begin  until  school  closes. 
She  thinks  the  superintendent  is  pretty  mean,  and  would  like 
to  make  him  realize  how  small  he  is. 


REFERENCES 

Bobbitt,  F.,  The  Curriculum,  Chapter  IX. 

Sears,  J.  B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,  pages  281-284. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Engelhardt,  N.,  The  Classroom  Teacher. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PROBLEMS   OF   RELATIONSHIP 
WITH   OTHER   TEACHERS 

JEALOUSY  AND  PREJUDICE;  TEAMWORK;  MUTUAL 
HELP  ;  EXCHANGE  OF  EXPERIENCES 

PROBLEM  200.  —  A  teacher  has  worked  very  hard  to  develop 
self-reliance  in  her  pupils.  She  has  found  it  possible  to  give 
them  a  good  deal  of  freedom.  She  feels  that  they  have  made  a 
good  start  but  that  they  need  much  further  encouragement. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  new  school  year  she  seeks  an 
interview  with  the  teacher  who  is  to  receive  her  former  class, 
in  order  to  tell  her  about  the  children  and  make  some  sugges- 
tions. She  expresses  a  desire  to  visit  the  class  occasionally. 
The  other  teacher  is  not  cordial,  intimates  that  she  does  not  need 
advice  as  to  the  handling  of  a  class,  and  gives  the  impression 
that  she  would  resent  any  visitation.  A  week  or  two  later, 
she  remarks  to  other  teachers  that  the  class  came  to  her  in  a 
terrible  state,  but  she  is  "  getting  the  nonsense  out  of  them." 
The  first  teacher  feels  that  her  efforts  have  been  wasted. 

FOR  a  few  clays,  the  teacher  is  depressed  and  falls  into  a 
mental  attitude  which  is  accurately  expressed  by  her  half 
disconsolate  and  half  petulant  exclamation:  "What's  the 
use!"  Her  ideas  and  habits  have  become  so  changed  by 
her  work  of  the  preceding  year  that,  in  spite  of  herself,  she 
soon  becomes  absorbed  in  the  growth  of  her  new  pupils, 
but  her  thoughts  turn  frequently  to  the  impossibility  of 
making  a  permanent  impression  on  the  characters  of  children 
by  a  single  year's  effort  which  is  followed  by  treatment 
directed  by  tot  ,lly  different  ideals.  She  decides  to  dis- 
cuss the  problem  with  the  principal. 

27, 


278       RELATIONSHIP  WITH  OTHER  TEACHERS 

"  Mr.  S.,"  she  says,  "you  seemed  interested  in  the  experi- 
ment which  I  tried  out  with  my  last  year's  class."  "Yes," 
he  answers,  "I  was  more  than  interested.  I  was  delighted 
with  the  children's  progress.  I  am  convinced  that  you  are 
on  the  right  track  and  I  want  you  to  go  right  ahead  on  the 
same  line  this  year."  "  What's  the  use ?"  she  asks.  "That 
track  comes  to  a  dead-end;  it  doesn't  get  you  anywhere." 
Then  she  tells  him  about  the  wet  blanket  which  has  been 
spread  over  her  enthusiasm  by  her  next-door  neighbor. 

The  principal  reflects  upon  this  difficulty.  He  had 
watched  the  novel  method  with  keen  interest,  but  had  not 
attempted  to  formulate  a  plan  for  extending  it  to  other 
grades.  Suddenly,  he  asks:  "How  would  you  like  to  keep 
your  present  class  for  several  years?  That  would  enable 
you  to  carry  the  children  to  a  point  where  they  might  be 
able  to  hold  their  own  without  much  encouragement." 
The  teacher  is  not  quite  sure.  "  I  think  I  should  like  that," 
she  answers.  "It  would  be  fascinating  to  watch  the  growth 
of  the  youngsters  from  year  to  year."  After  a  pause  she 
adds:  "But  that  wouldn't  be  a  complete  solution,  would 
it?  After  all,  I  should  be  influencing  only  one  group  of 
children.  What  about  the  others  ?" 

"It  is  a  big  problem,"  the  principal  replies.  "We  can 
hardly  expect  to  solve  it  all  at  once.  I  think  the  most 
hopeful  plan  will  be  for  you  to  work  out  your  method  as  an 
experiment  and  demonstration.  I  am  hopeful  that  the 
other  teachers  will  gradually  become  interested  in  it  and, 
in  time,  we  shall  have  the  whole  school  working  as  a  unit." 

At  the  next  teachers'  meeting,  the  principal  gives  a  little 
talk.  "I  have  been  impressed  recently,"  he  says,  "with 
the  importance  of  better  teamwork  in  our  job  of  educating 


TEAMWORK  279 

children.  In  our  school,  as  in  most  schools,  we  have  thought 
of  the  institution  as  an  aggregation  of  more  or  less  independ- 
ent grades.  As  children  pass  through  them  they  are  sub- 
jected to  different,  sometimes  sharply  contrasted,  personali- 
ties, methods,  and  ideals.  If  we  think  of  our  work  chiefly 
as  imparting  subject  matter  and  training  in  processes  like 
reading  and  writing,  this  view  of  the  school  is  natural 
enough.  All  we  have  to  do  is  to  adopt  a  course  of  study, 
with  appropriate  material  for  each  grade,  and  have  it  taught 
in  the  way  that  each  teacher  can  use  best.  But  if  we  think 
of  education  as  guiding  the  development  of  individual  chil- 
dren, if  we  concern  ourselves  chiefly  with  character,  then 
the  personality  and  ideals  of  the  teacher  count  for  more 
than  subject  matter.  We  must  have  common  ideals  and 
work  together  as  a  team,  making  the  development  of  ideals, 
social  qualities,  and  habits  of  work  a  continuous  growth. 

We  need  to  be  more  interested  in  each  other's  work. 
Each  teacher  ought  to  know  what  is  going  on  in  the  grade 
below  her  own  and  to  follow  with  interest  the  progress  of 
pupils  after  they  have  passed  through  her  hands.  Teachers 
often  hesitate  to  visit  other  classrooms.  They  fear  that 
they  will  not  be  welcome,  that  their  motives  will  be  mis- 
understood. If  there  is  any  such  feeling  in  this  school,  we 
must  try  to  overcome  it.  Let  us  take  the  education  of  all 
our  boys  and  girls  as  a  problem  which  concerns  us  all. 
Let  us  encourage  each  other  and  help  each  other  by  sugges- 
tion and  constructive  criticism. 

Now  we  are  about  to  undertake  an  experiment  which 
will  help  us,  I  think,  to  work  out  practical  methods  of 
cultivating  the  character  elements  in  our  pupils.  It  will 
give  us  a  good  opportunity  to  put  into  practice  the  team- 


280  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   OTHER   TEACHERS 

work  idea  which  I  have  been  emphasizing.  You  all  know 
about  the  scheme  which  Miss  A.  tried  last  year.  It  was 
quite  different  from  the  usual  plan  of  school  work  and  some 
of  us  doubted  its  success.  No  wonderful  results  were 
attained.  Miss  A.  would  admit,  I  am  sure,  that  there  were 
many  shortcomings.  But  it  was  an  earnest  effort  for  the 
welfare  of  the  children  and  the  results  were  promising 
enough  to  warrant  a  thorough  test.  Therefore  I  have 
asked  Miss  A.  to  keep  her  present  group  of  pupils  long 
enough  to  see  what  can  be  accomplished  by  consistent 
efforts  to  develop  ability  to  think,  to  act,  and  to  work 
together,  in  distinction  from  ability  to  recite.  The 
experiment  can,  if  it  should  seem  desirable,  last  several 
years. 

Now  for  the  teamwork.  If  we  stand  off  and  criticize 
adversely,  or  merely  show  indifference,  the  experiment 
will  not  have  the  best  chance  of  success  and  the  school  will 
get  little  benefit.  We  are  not  assuming  that  it  will  be  a 
success  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  but  we 
should  like  to  get  a  clear  answer  to  the  question  whether 
the  method  is  capable  of  producing  the  results  aimed  at, 
and  if  it  should  be  successful,  we  should  like  to  make  it 
available  for  all  teachers  who  desire  to  use  it.  Miss  A. 
will  keep  us  informed  of  the  progress  of  the  experiment  and 
we  shall  frequently  discuss  in  teachers'  meeting  the  diffi- 
culties that  arise.  I  will  arrange  to  relieve  occasionally 
any  teacher  who  desires  to  visit  Miss  A.'s  class.  She  will 
be  glad  of  your  criticism  and  your  help." 

Some  of  the  teachers  respond  to  the  principal's  advice 
and  soon  become  keenly  interested.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  next  term,  two  or  three  begin  to  work  on  the  new  plan 


JEALOUSY   AND   PREJUDICE  281 

in  their  own  classes.  Gradually  the  work  throughout  the 
school  feels  the  influence  of  the  new  scheme.  The  teacher 
who  boasted  of  "  taking  the  nonsense  out  of  Miss  A.'s  former 
class"  sticks  to  her  guns  for  some  time,  but  the  growing 
interest  throughout  the  school  has  its  effect  and  by  the  end 
of  the  second  year  she  takes  pride  in  telling  people  outside 
the  school  about  "our  plan"  and  about  the  "wonderful 
spirit  of  cooperation  in  our  school." 

PROBLEM  201.  —  The  superintendent  commends  publicly  a 
piece  of  work  which  he  has  seen  in  one  class,  and  asks  the  teacher 
to  give  a  demonstration.  Some  of  the  teachers  take  no  part  in 
the  conference  which  follows  the  demonstration  but  are  very 
critical  in  conversation  afterward.  Some  of  them  feel  that 
their  own  work  is  at  least  as  good  as  the  example  shown  but  is 
not  appreciated.  Others  think  that  the  method  demonstrated 
requires  a  great  deal  of  thought  and  study  by  the  teacher  and, 
if  encouraged,  will  mean  increased  demands  upon  everybody. 
They  think  that  teachers  ought  to  oppose  such  ideal  schemes 
and  use  their  influence  to  keep  things  "  practical."  The  teacher 
who  gave  the  demonstration  asks  the  superintendent  not  to 
ask  her  to  do  such  a  thing  again,  because  the  intimation  that 
her  work  is  better  than  that  of  others  will  affect  her  relations 
with  other  teachers. 

The  superintendent  sends  for  the  teacher  and  tries  to 
persuade  her  to  withdraw  her  request.  "Such  demonstra- 
tions as  yours,"  he  says,  "are  more  valuable  than  anything 
else  that  I  know  of  for  improving  methods  of  teaching." 
"Please  don't  urge  me,"  she  pleads.  "This  one  experience 
has  affected  the  cordiality  of  my  associates.  I  don't  want 
to  be  regarded  as  a  stuck-up  outsider.  I  prefer  to  be  one 
of  the  crowd.  I  will  do  my  best  in  my  own  room  but  I 
don't  want  any  prominence."  "But  don't  you  see," 
he  argues,  "that  the  benefit  will  be  limited  to  your  own 
class,  when  your  work  might  have  an  influence  on  hundreds 


282  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   OTHER  TEACHERS 

of  children?"  "What  influence  can  it  have,"  she  retorts, 
"if  the  other  teachers  are  prejudiced  against  it?  They 
might  even  be  deterred  from  using  a  good  method  if  it 
came  to  be  spoken  of  as  my  method."  "I  think  you  are 
exaggerating  the  narrow  attitude  of  a  few  teachers,"  he 
protests.  "Several  teachers  have  told  me  how  much  they 
enjoyed  your  lesson.  The  total  effect  was  good,  I  am  sure, 
in  spite  of  the  unpleasant  atmosphere  which  you  have 
noticed.  You  must  not  take  that  too  much  to  heart. 
'A  prophet  is  not  without  honor  except  in  his  own  country ' 
-  but  what  a  pity  it  would  be  if  all  the  prophets  should 
hide  their  light  under  the  proverbial  bushel !  " 

"Don't  call  me  a  prophet !  "  she  exclaims  in  mock  horror. 
"Let  me  blush  unseen!"  "And  waste  —  Are  you  willing 
to  finish  the  quotation ?"  He  continues  earnestly  :  "Miss 
D.,  you  are  too  conscious  of  yourself  in  this  matter.  The 
education  of  these  children  is  altogether  more  important 
than  your  feelings.  Try  to  subordinate  these  personal 
relations  and  remember  that  we  are  engaged  in  a  great, 
all-important  enterprise.  Don't  hold  back.  Let  us  have 
the  best  that  you  can  give,  even  though  the  heathen  rage." 

Miss  D.  has  no  more  excuses  to  offer  but  her  feelings  are 
too  much  affected  to  permit  any  enthusiasm  for  more 
performances  in  the  limelight.  She  consents  reluctantly 
to  accept  a  summons  for  duty  when  the  superintendent 
thinks  it  necessary  but  she  hopes  that  he  will  be  considerate. 

A  few  weeks  later,  the  whole  staff  is  called  together  to 
listen  to  an  address  on  "The  Work  of  the  Physician"  by 
one  of  the  leading  local  members  of  the  profession.  In 
the  course  of  his  remarks  he  speaks  of  the  Medical  Associa- 
tion to  which  most  of  the  physicians  of  the  locality  belong. 


EXCHANGE    OF   EXPERIENCES  283 

At  each  of  the  monthly  meetings,  one  member  reports  on 
some  investigation  in  which  he  is  engaged.  He  speaks  also 
of  the  value  to  physicians  of  clinics  at  which  they  can  ob- 
serve the  work  of  those  who  have  developed  a  new  method 
or  acquired  special  skill  in  treating  various  physical  ail- 
ments. He  says  that  this  practice  of  making  available  to 
the  whole  profession  the  progress  made  by  individuals  is 
doing  wonders  in  improving  medical  and  surgical  practice 
and  in  developing  a  professional  esprit-de-corps.  He 
refers  with  humorous  contempt  to  the  few  self-centered 
individuals  who,  in  a  spirit  of  jealousy,  disparage  the  work 
of  those  who  have  acquired  prominence  or  decline  to  make 
their  own  discoveries  known  to  their  fellows.  "I  suppose 
you  teachers  follow  a  similar  plan,"  he  remarks.  "If 
not,  I  commend  it  to  you." 

The  address  makes  a  very  strong  impression.  Teachers 
wait  after  the  meeting  to  talk  with  the  speaker  or  to  discuss 
the  lecture  in  animated  groups.  The  need  of  something 
corresponding  to  the  Medical  Association  is  emphatically 
declared  by  several  and  generally  accepted.  The  physi- 
cian's joke  about  the  dog-in-the-manger  with  an  M.D. 
degree  is  repeated  with  gusto  and  it  is  intimated  that  some 
of  the  breed  have  been  to  normal  school.  Informal  con- 
ferences follow  and  then  another  general  meeting  is  held 
at  which  plans  are  laid  for  a  thorough  exchange  of  experi- 
ences among  teachers  working  in  the  same  field,  reports 
of  experiments,  and  educational  clinics  at  which  members 
of  the  staff  are  to  demonstrate  promising  methods.  The 
phrase  used  by  one  of  the  teachers  during  the  discussion 
is  adopted  as  the  motto  of  the  new  association:  "Pooling 
our  efforts  and  stimulating  each  other." 


284  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  OTHER  TEACHERS 

PROBLEM  202. 

A  young  teacher  meets  with  many  difficulties  and  realizes 
that  she  is  not  doing  well.  She  is  timid  about  asking  help 
of  other  teachers,  because  they  seem  to  be  disgusted  with  the 
evidence  of  disorder  in  her  class.  She  overhears  one  teacher 
remark  that  if  a  change  is  not  made  soon,  the  class  will  be 
ruined. 

This  remark  takes  the  heart  out  of  the  young  teacher. 
She  has  been  struggling  to  get  control  of  the  situation,  has 
worked  hard  on  her  lesson  plans,  and  tried  to  gain  the  co- 
operation of  some  especially  troublesome  pupils  by  talking 
to  them  after  school.  Her  weakness  has  been  lack  of  judg- 
ment due  to  lack  of  experience.  She  has  been  unable  to  act 
with  decision  in  emergencies  because  she  has  not  been  sure 
what  she  ought  to  do.  She  has  made  mistakes  and  sought 
to  correct  them  by  going  to  the  other  extreme,  thus  creating 
resentment  and  lack  of  respect  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 
She  has  worried  until  she  is  half  sick  and  has  got  into 
such  a  state  that  she  cannot  sleep.  Under  other  circum- 
stances the  suggestion  of  failure  might  have  put  her  on  her 
mettle,  but  in  her  present  condition  it  prostrates  her. 

She  is  quite  unable  to  face  her  class  the  next  day  and 
spends  the  day  in  bed.  At  the  close  of  school  on  the  day 
of  her  return,  the  principal  calls  her  into  the  office  and  tells 
her  kindly  enough  that  he  is  very  sorry  to  be  obliged  to 
suggest  such  a  thing  but  the  welfare  of  the  children  demands 
that  the  demoralization  of  the  class  be  corrected  promptly. 
He  is  willing  to  allow  her  another  week's  trial,  but  unless 
there  is  distinct  improvement  by  the  end  of  that  time,  he 
will  be  obliged  to  put  another  teacher  in  her  place. 

The  girl  leaves  the  office  in  a  daze.  The  humiliation  of 
loss  of  position,  defeat  of  her  ambition,  and  realization  of 


MUTUAL   HELP  285 

the  disappointment  of  her  parents  combine  to  form  a  blow 
which  renders  her  numb.  As  she  starts  back  to  her  room, 
one  of  the  older  teachers  notices  her  drawn  face  and  unsee- 
ing eyes,  and  follows  her.  Once  in  the  room,  she  puts  her 
hand  on  the  girl's  shoulder  and  says:  "Don't  worry,  sister. 
The  beginning  is  the  hard  part.  It  will  get  easier  soon." 
This  sign  of  sympathy  destroys  the  last  bit  of  self-control 
and  the  girl  drops  into  a  chair  shaking  with  sobs. 

After  a  time  the  older  teacher  succeeds  in  getting  most  of 
the  story.  "But  why  didn't  you  let  us  know  you  were 
having  trouble?"  she  asks.  "Why  didn't  you  let  us  help 
you?" 

"You  all  seemed  to  know  just  how  to  do  everything,"  is 
the  reply.  "You  —  not  you  personally;  I  thought  of 
everybody  just  as  'the  other  teachers' -- seemed  to 
expect  everything  to  go  as  you  knew  it  ought  to  go  and  to 
be  disgusted  when  I  did  what  seemed  to  you  absurd  things. 
You  thought  I  was  stupid,  I  suppose.  I'm  beginning  to 
think  so  too." 

"Nonsense  !  "  says  the  other  teacher.  "Most  of  us  have 
been  through  experiences  like  yours,  only  with  some  of  us  it 
was  so  long  ago  that  we  have  forgotten.  We  are  the  persons 
who  have  been  stupid.  We  expect  a  beginner  to  get  by 
inspiration  what  we  have  learned  by  years  of  experience ; 
or  at  least  we  judge  the  beginner  by  our  present  standards 
without  giving  adequate  help  and  encouragement.  You 
must  forgive  us  for  seeming  heartless.  We  are  not  so  in 
reality.  We  are  just  thoughtless.  Now  don't  worry  about 
that  week's  trial.  Just  make  up  your  mind  that  you  are  go- 
ing to  win.  Remember  that  thousands  of  teachers  have  had 
a  hard  time  with  discipline  at  first.  Why,  one  of  our  very 


286       RELATIONSHIP  WITH  OTHER  TEACHERS 

best  teachers  was  given  notice,  after  she  had  taught  a  month 
or  so,  that  she  would  have  to  leave  at  the  end  of  the  second 
month.  She  appealed  for  a  longer  trial  and  made  good. 
If  she  had  given  up,  a  splendid  teacher  would  have  been 
lost.  We  shall  rely  on  you  to  master  the  situation  and  we'll 
help  you." 

The  young  teacher  naturally  takes  new  courage.  She 
redoubles  her  efforts  when  she  finds  that  the  other  teachers 
count  her  as  one  of  their  number  and  are  interested  in  her 
success.  She  no  longer  hesitates  to  report  her  difficulties 
and  ask  for  advice.  The  teachers,  on  their  part,  having 
been  acquainted  with  the  state  of  the  case,  take  the  new 
recruit  under  their  protection  and  vie  with  each  other  in 
showing  little  acts  of  friendliness,  and  in  coaching  her  in 
the  tricks  of  the  trade.  At  the  end  of  the  week,  the  prin- 
cipal congratulates  her  with  evident  pleasure,  saying:  "If 
you  continue  to  make  as  much  progress  as  you  have  done 
this  week,  you  will  have  a  hard  time  to  get  away." 

The  older  teacher,  who  took  part  in  the  crisis,  discussing 
the  case  with  others,  declares  emphatically:  "We've  got 
to  take  an  interest  in  each  other's  success  and  back  each 
other  up." 

PROBLEM  203.  —  The  teachers  of  a  high  school  are  rather  con- 
temptuous of  the  elementary  school  teachers.  As  college  gradu- 
ates, they  have  little  respect  for  normal  schools.  They  say  that 
the  deficiencies  of  the  pupils  who  enter  high  school  show  that 
there  has  been  no  thoroughness  in  their  preparation.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  elementary  school  teachers  consider  the  high 
school  group  snobbish,  absorbed  in  subject  matter,  and  ignorant 
of  teaching  methods.  An  eighth-grade  teacher,  who  is  very 
much  interested  in  her  pupils  and  is  troubled  by  the  failure  of 
many  of  them  in  high  school,  undertakes  to  improve  the  situ- 
ation. 


MUTUAL    HELP  287 

The  teacher  begins  by  visiting  the  high  school.  She 
spends  most  of  the  day  in  the  classes  in  which  the  least 
able  of  her  last  year's  pupils  recite,  but  she  takes  pains  to 
observe  the  school  as  a  whole.  She  attends  the  assembly 
exercises,  visits  the  gymnasium  and  library,  and  takes  lunch 
with  some  of  her  former  pupils  in  the  school  lunch  room. 
At  the  close  of  school  she  talks  with  several  teachers  about 
the  work  of  pupils  in  whom  she  is  especially  interested,  and 
spends  a  few  minutes  at  a  meeting  of  one  of  the  student 
organizations. 

Her  visit  corrects  some  of  her  previous  impressions  of 
the  high  school.  She  rinds  an  orderly  institution  with  stu- 
dents who,  on  the  whole,  are  attractive,  lively,  and  appar- 
ently happy  in  their  school  life.  She  is  impressed  with  the 
knowledge  displayed  by  some  of  the  teachers  and  with  the 
personalities  of  others.  She  gets  new  light  on  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  type  of  pupil  who,  by  help  and  sympathetic 
guidance,  has  been  enabled  to  complete  the  elementary 
school  and  induced  to  enter  high  school.  She  observes 
such  pupils  closely  during  recitation  periods.  As  a  rule, 
they  never  volunteer  to  recite  and,  when  called  upon,  make 
a  miserable  showing.  She  finds  it  very  hard  to  keep  from 
interrupting  to  ask  a  question  or  make  an  explanation  which 
would  enable  a  pupil  to  appear  to  better  advantage.  It 
is  plain  that  teacher  and  students  consider  him  hopelessly 
stupid.  The  plane  of  instruction  is  over  his  head  and  the 
teacher's  method  of  dealing  with  him  is  calculated  to 
discourage  rather  than  to  stimulate  him.  It  is  not  that  the 
teacher  is  harsh  or  intentionally  unsympathetic.  He  is 
apparently  popular  with  most  of  the  students  and  gets 
good  response  from  many  of  them,  but  it  is  evident  that  he 


288  RELATIONSHIP   WITH   OTHER   TEACHERS 

does  not  understand  these  slow-minded  pupils  or  recognize 
his  responsibility  for  studying  their  peculiar  needs.  At 
lunch  one  girl  declares,  in  answer  to  the  teacher's  question, 
that  she  hates  high  school  and  is  looking  for  a  job.  "Under 
present  conditions,"  our  teacher  thinks,  "that  is  the  best 
thing  that  she  can  do." 

During  her  brief  conversations  with  the  teachers,  the 
visitor  expresses  her  interest  in  what  she  has  seen,  tells 
some  of  her  own  experiences  with  individual  pupils,  and 
tries  to  hint  gently  the  need  of  special  treatment  in  some 
cases.  She  finds  that  there  is  no  common  ground  for 
interpreting  the  problem.  The  high  school  teachers  are 
apparently  just  as  devoted  to  the  cause  of  education  as  she 
is,  but  their  dominant  ideas  do  not  accord  with  her  own. 
One  teacher  says:  "You  elementary  school  people  don't 
have  to  meet  the  test  of  college  entrance  examinations." 
Another  says:  "Children  are  coddled  too  much  in  the 
elementary  school  and  when  they  come  to  us,  they  can't 
stand  on  their  own  feet.  There  is  nothing  like  the  sink- 
or-swim  method  of  developing  character."  Our  teacher 
tries  to  be  fair.  She  thinks  that  she  herself  may  have  erred 
at  times  in  anticipating  difficulties  and  preventing  failure 
of  pupils,  instead  of  putting  the  responsibility  upon  them. 
"However,"  she  says  to  herself  as  she  leaves  the  building, 
"the  sink-or-swim  method  seems  rather  costly  —  for  those 
who  sink.  We've  simply  got  to  get  together  and  agree 
on  what  we  are  trying  to  do." 

The  teacher  next  takes  her  problem  to  the  superintendent. 
He  is  appreciative  of  her  interest  but  tells  her  that  she  has 
tackled  a  very  hard  problem.  He  is  much  interested  in 
her  first  step  and  undertakes  to  arrange  an  exchange  of 


MUTUAL   HELP  289 

visits  for  all  teachers  of  the  eighth  grade  and  the  first  year 
of  high  school.  The  visits  are  made  and,  on  the  whole,  are 
valuable.  Teachers  gain  clearer  ideas  of  the  working 
conditions  in  the  other  school  and  learn  to  appreciate 
each  other's  work  somewhat  better,  but  the  ideals  of  the 
two  groups  of  teachers  remain  far  apart.  No  appreciable 
change  in  methods  of  teaching  is  made  in  either  depart- 
ment. Hardly  one  of  the  teachers  is  sufficiently  impressed 
with  the  necessity  of  mutual  understanding  to  follow  up 
his  visit  on  his  own  initiative. 

Another  talk  with  the  superintendent  results  in  a  more 
thoroughgoing  trial  of  the  method  of  visitation.  At  the 
beginning  of  a  term  one  of  the  eighth-grade  teachers  is 
transferred  temporarily  to  the  high  school  and  a  high 
school  teacher  takes  an  eighth-grade  class.  This  arrange- 
ment is  brought  about  with  some  difficulty  as  the  high 
school  teacher  fears  that,  when  it  is  known  that  he  is  teach- 
ing in  the  elementary  school,  his  professional  reputation 
will  be  injured,  and  the  eighth-grade  teacher  suspects  that 
she  will  be  regarded  as  an  outsider.  The  high  school 
teacher  "flunks"  half  the  eighth  graders  and  stirs  up  a 
good  deal  of  resentment  among  the  parents.  The  eighth- 
grade  teacher  is  critical  of  the  high  school  administration 
and  makes  herself  persona  non  grata.  Both  visitors  return 
to  their  own  departments  without  having  influenced  the 
other  school  or  changed  their  own  ideas. 

Our  teacher  then  asks  that  she  herself  be  permitted  to 
work  with  high  school  freshmen  for  a  term  or  two  and 
suggests  that,  if  possible,  a  teacher  be  found  to  exchange 
with  her  who  is  really  interested  in  the  experiment.  After 
several  conferences  and  a  good  deal  of  persuasive  effort 

E.   T.   PROB. —  IQ 


2QO       RELATIONSHIP  WITH  OTHER  TEACHERS 

by  the  superintendent,  the  high  school  principal  consents 
to  loan  one  of  his  strongest  teachers,  a  woman  who  knows 
the  high  school  thoroughly  and  is  devoted  to  the  welfare 
of  the  students. 

The  two  teachers  discuss  the  problem  fully  and  make 
plans  for  a  test  which  shall  settle  some  of  the  questions.  In 
order  to  cooperate  most  effectively  they  decide  to  room 
together.  They  become  intensely  interested  in  the  problem 
itself,  sharing  experiences  and  exchanging  advice.  A  very 
warm  friendship  grows  up.  The  high  school  teacher  soon 
learns  to  appreciate  the  other's  knowledge  of  children  and 
keen  sympathy  with  the  needs  of  individuals.  The  ele- 
mentary teacher  admires  her  friend's  keen  mind,  knowledge 
of  books,  and  ability  to  express  her  ideas. 

There  are  many  arguments  which  help  to  clarify  the  ideas 
of  both.  The  high  school  teacher  comes  to  accept  the 
other's  point  of  view  in  regard  to  the  responsibility  of  the 
schools  for  helping  every  child  to  make  the  most  of  himself 
whatever  his  ability.  She  frequently  gives  illustrations 
of  her  own  experiences  in  which  she  has  acted  in  accordance 
with  what  she  now  considers  a  mistaken  point  of  view. 
Once  she  has  adopted  the  broader  conception  of  education, 
her  ability  to  think  constructively  enables  her  to  show  how 
high  school  methods  can  be  changed  without  detracting 
from  the  really  valuable  work  which  the  school  has  been 
doing.  The  other  teacher  absorbs  much  from  her  abler 
chum.  She  reads  books  which  she  would  never  have  heard 
mentioned  among  her  former  associates.  She  attends  a 
course  in  literature  and  makes  plans  for  taking  regular 
college  work.  She  sees  that  she  has  not  been  able  heretofore 
to  furnish  an  example  to  the  abler  pupils  or  to  give 


MUTUAL  HELP  291 

them  ideas  which  would  stimulate  them  to  their  best 
efforts. 

The  high  school  teacher  had  never  before  thought  very 
much  about  methods  of  teaching.  She  had  joked  about 
"  pedaguese  "  and  scorned  psychology,  but  the  discussions 
with  her  roommate  about  the  lessons  which  she  is  planning 
to  teach  the  eighth  grade  or  the  difficulties  encountered 
in  making  children  understand  work  which  seems  perfectly 
simple  to  her,  convince  her  presently  that  she  needs  some 
real  training  in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching.  She  too 
decides  to  study,  and  begins  with  summer  courses  in 
educational  psychology  and  methods  of  teaching  English. 

Both  teachers  influence  the  schools  in  which  they  are 
working  temporarily.  They  make  a  business  of  under- 
standing the  institutions  and  are  careful  to  cooperate  in  the 
established  procedure.  They  show  an  unassuming  friendli- 
ness and  interest  in  the  activities  of  the  other  teachers. 
After  a  time  both  win  places  in  the  confidence  of  their  new 
associates  and  their  views  tactfully  expressed  are  received 
with  respect.  Each  is  naturally  looked  upon  as  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  other  school,  and  by  her  conduct  secures 
appreciation  of  the  whole  group  with  whom  she  is  associ- 
ated in  the  minds  of  her  fellow  workers. 

When  the  teachers  return  to  their  regular  posts  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next  year,  they  set  to  work  actively  to 
make  effective  the  ideas  which  they  have  gained  through 
their  joint  study  of  the  problem.  They  have  long  been 
recognized  as  leaders,  and  their  advice  and  example  are 
readily  followed.  Elementary  teachers  begin  to  read  and 
study,  and  high  school  teachers  to  interest  themselves  in 
professional  problems,  apart  from  subject  matter.  The 


292 

description  by  the  two  chums  of  the  pleasure  and  profit 
which  they  have  gained  from  their  intimate  association 
inspires  others  to  do  likewise.  A  few  express  a  desire  to 
exchange  positions  for  a  year.  Interest  in  the  other  depart- 
ments of  the  school  system  increases.  Social  affairs  which 
were  formerly  given  separately  or,  when  open  to  all  teachers, 
given  by  the  teachers  of  one  school  as  hosts,  are  placed  in 
the  hands  of  committees  made  up  of  representatives  of 
several  schools.  The  experience  of  working  together  iu 
planning  and  carrying  out  entertainments  and  other  social 
activities  contributes  to  mutual  appreciation  and  develops 
some  warm  friendships.  The  eighth-grade  teacher,  in 
exchanging  congratulations  with  the  superintendent,  says : 
"We  are  getting  to  be  like  one  big  family." 

PRINCIPLES  IN  REGARD  TO  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  OTHER 
TEACHERS 

1.  Teachers  should  regard  themselves  as  members  of  a  team, 
engaged  in  a  common  enterprise.     For  the  success  of  the  team, 
each  member  must  sacrifice  personal  opinions  and  convenience 
in  the  interest  of  the  common  purpose. 

2.  Mutual  confidence  and  encouragement  of  one  another  are 
essential  to  a  strong  team  spirit.     Jealousy  and  distrust  cut 
down  efficiency  just  as  friction  does  in  an  engine. 

3.  Each  teacher  ought  to  be  interested  in  the  work  of  the 
whole  system.     Where  one  works  without  reference  to  others, 
we  have  an  aggregation  of  more  or  less  conflicting  efforts,  not 
a  team. 

4.  Straightforwardness    and   frankness    prevent   misunder- 
standings. 

5.  Fairmindedness   and   willingness   to   listen   to   a   sincere 
expression  of  opinion  which  is  opposed  to  one's  own  convictions 
are   needed  for  real  cooperation.      Partisanship  or  factional 
controversies  kill  the  spirit  of  unity. 


RELATIONSHIP  WITH   OTHER  TEACHERS  293 

6.  A  teacher  who  is  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  the  schools  will 
scrupulously  avoid  all  participation  in  gossip. 

7.  Friendly  rivalry  is  stimulating  but  rivalry  which  leads 
to  partisanship  is  degrading. 

8.  Criticism  based  upon  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  improv- 
ing the  work  of  the  schools  is  a  duty.     Fault  rinding  which  leads 
to  no  improvement  is  destructive. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  204.  —  Miss  A.  has  established  a  very  friendly  re- 
lationship with  a  class.  The  next  year  they  come  to  see  her 
frequently,  say  that  they  hate  Miss  B.,  the  new  teacher,  and 
wish  they  were  back  in  the  old  class.  Miss  B.  is  hurt,  dislikes 
the  children,  and  cherishes  a  growing  grudge  against  Miss  A., 
whom  she  considers  responsible. 

PROBLEM  205.  —  A  plan  for  increasing  the  length  of  the  school 
year  is  proposed.  Most  of  the  teachers  in  a  school  are  strongly 
opposed  to  it.  A  few  of  the  teachers  are  convinced  that  it  would 
be  to  the  advantage  of  the  children,  but  take  no  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion at  the  teachers'  meeting,  because  the  sentiment  is  so 
strong  that  they  would  be  very  unpopular  if  they  should  give 
support  to  the  obnoxious  plan. 

PROBLEM  206.  —  A  rumor  of  misconduct  on  the  part  of  a  teacher 
gains  circulation.  There  is  no  definite  evidence  but  the  rumor  is 
accepted  by  many  as  truth  and  the  supposed  offender  is  ostra- 
cized. 

PROBLEM  207.  —  A  teacher  remarks  that  no  money  would  tempt 
her  to  teach  in  one  of  the  other  schools  of  the  system.  The 
remark  is  repeated  and  leads  to  a  lack  of  cordiality  between  the 
teachers  of  the  two  schools. 

PROBLEM  208.  —  A  teacher  who  has  always  taught  in  her  own 
home  town  takes  a  position  a  long  distance  away.  She  does  not 
make  friends  easily  and  becomes  very  homesick. 

PROBLEM  209.  —  In  order  to  promote  acquaintance  among 
the  teachers,  the  Teachers'  Association  arranges  some  social 


294  RELATIONSHIP   WITH   OTHER   TEACHERS 

affairs.  Some  teachers  do  not  attend.  One  says  in  explanation 
that  these  affairs  are  stupid.  He  sees  teachers  every  day.  He 
prefers  to  get  social  relaxation  in  other  ways. 

PROBLEM  210.  —  A  teacher  learns  that  the  salary  of  another 
has  been  raised.  She  thinks  of  many  reasons,  perfectly  convinc- 
ing to  her,  why  she  herself  is  more  entitled  to  an  increase  than 
the  one  who  has  received  it.  She  discusses  the  alleged  injus- 
tice with  other  teachers  and  intimates  that  the  superintendent 
has  been  insincere  in  remarks  about  salary  matters  which  she 
recalls  somewhat  dimly  at  first  but  more  and  more  positively  as 
she  repeats  the  tale.  It  is  suggested  that  the  personal  likes  and 
dislikes  of  the  principal  may  be  responsible,  and  this  idea  pres- 
ently comes  to  be  regarded  as  fact.  The  agitation  does  not  re- 
sult in  any  additional  salary  changes  but  causes  an  unpleasant 
atmosphere  in  the  schools  and  wins  for  our  teacher  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  a  trouble  maker. 

PROBLEM  211.  —  A  series  of  tests  is  given  in  all  the  schools  of 
a  city  system.  When  the  results  are  published,  it  is  found  that 
one  of  the  schools  stands  highest  in  nearly  all  the  tests.  The 
teachers  in  one  of  the  other  schools  are  much  disappointed. 
Their  attention  centers  upon  the  peculiar  advantages  enjoyed 
by  the  first  school.  They  cannot  tolerate  the  idea  that  the 
superior  results  are  due  to  better  teaching.  One  suggests  that 
a  lax  interpretation  of  the  rule  for  giving  the  tests  might  account 
for  the  apparent  superiority.  The  superintendent  asks  teachers 
to  send  him  their  views  of  the  value  of  the  competition  and  to 
state  how  the  greatest  possible  benefit  can  be  gained  from  it. 

PROBLEM  212.  —  Two  teachers  go  to  the  principal  and  complain 
that  the  lax  disciplinary  standards  of  another  teacher  are  causing 
trouble.  They  say  that  he  takes  no  responsibility  for  correcting 
cases  of  misbehavior  in  the  corridors,  and  that  he  allows  so  much 
freedom  in  his  own  classes  that  the  pupils  are  difficult  to  con- 
trol when  they  go  to  other  rooms.  The  principal  replies  that  he 
assumes  their  motive  for  speaking  of  the  matter  to  be  solely 
to  improve  the  school,  and  asks  what  they  have  done  to  over- 
come the  difficulty.  They  are  somewhat  taken  aback  as  they 
had  done  nothing  but  to  complain  and  gossip  about  the  situation 
and  had  expected  him  to  deal  with  it.  He  asks  them  U>  think 


RELATIONSHIP  WITH   OTHER  TEACHERS  2Q5 

the  matter  over  and  decide  upon  the  best  way  of  solving  the 
problem. 

PROBLEM  213.  —  A  teacher,  who  desires  to  understand  better 
the  pupils  who  come  to  her  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  visits 
the  next  lower  grade.  The  teacher  of  this  class  is  much  annoyed. 
She  thinks  the  other  ought  to  attend  to  her  own  affairs  and  not 
come  spying  on  her  neighbors.  The  coolness  of  the  atmosphere 
puzzles  the  visitor. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PROBLEMS   OF  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS 

COOPERATION   WITH  PARENTS;    FACE-TO-FACE   METHOD, 
THE  CHILD  LABOR  PROBLEM;    EDUCATING  PARENTS 

PROBLEM  214. 

Dear  Mrs.  Brown : 

I  am  sorry  to  say  that  Fred  is  not  doing  well  in  school. 
Unless  he  improves,  he  cannot  be  promoted.  I  will  assign  some 
review  work  for  him  to  do  at  home  every  day.  If  he  does  this 
faithfully,  I  think  he  can  catch  up  with  the  class.  Will  you 
see  that  he  does  this  regularly  ? 

Yours  sincerely, 

Helen  Johnson 
Dear  Madam : 

If  Fred  is  not  doing  well  in  school,  you  had  better  see 
that  he  does.  That  is  what  you  are  paid  for.  I  shall  cer- 
tainly not  allow  him  to  do  any  school  work  at  home.  The 
school  day  is  much  too  long  now.  And  he  will  be  promoted. 
Don't  forget  that. 

Mrs.  J.  H.  Brown 

Miss  JOHNSON  shows  the  parent's  letter  to  several  of  her 
friends.  An  impromptu  indignation  meeting  is  held  forth- 
with, at  which  impassioned  speeches  are  delivered  on  the 
outrage  of  insults  to  which  teachers  are  subjected  when 
they  go  out  of  their  way  to  help  indifferent  pupils.  Mrs. 
Brown's  domineering  attitude  especially  arouses  the  ire 
of  the  participants.  One  says:  "She'll  try  to  bulldoze 
the  principal  into  promoting  the  boy  if  you  try  to  hold  him 

296 


COOPERATION  WITH  PARENTS  297 

back.  Such  a  woman  will  stop  at  nothing  to  have  her 
own  way.  If  I  were  you  I'd  fight  this  thing  to  the  last 
ditch  and  resign  if  I  were  overruled." 

Miss  Johnson's  impulse  is  to  stand  on  her  dignity.  When 
someone  asks  if  she  intends  to  reply  to  the  note,  she  re- 
plies: "Certainly  not.  I  wouldn't  demean  my  self  by  paying 
the  slightest  attention  to  it."  To  herself  she  exclaims: 
"Catch  me  bothering  any  more  with  that  Fred  Brown! 
He  can  go  on  loafing  for  all  I  care,  but  he  won't  be  promoted 
if  I  know  myself." 

As  it  happens,  the  note  is  received  on  Friday,  and  there  is 
no  immediate  opportunity  to  play  My  Lady  Haughty 
toward  the  boy.  On  Sunday  the  text  is:  "Blessed  are  ye 
when  men  shall  revile  you  and  persecute  you  and  say  all 
manner  of  evil  against  you  falsely  for  My  sake."  The 
preacher  speaks  of  the  hardships  which  missionaries  have 
undergone,  of  the  persecution  of  leaders  in  science  whose 
discoveries  have  proved  to  be  of  immense  value  to  humanity, 
and  dwells  upon  the  unfair  criticism  and  even  vilification 
to  which  public  men  are  subjected.  "The  great  work  of 
the  world,"  he  declares,  "is  done  by  people  who  refuse  to  be 
diverted  from  their  purpose  by  hardship  or  misunderstand- 
ing or  unfair  treatment.  Every  one  of  us  could  accomplish 
far  more  if  we  would  follow  our  ideals,  holding  to  our 
purposes  in  the  midst  of  obstacles  and  maintaining  our 
self-control  in  the  face  of  misunderstanding,  lack  of  appre- 
ciation, and  fault  finding.  The  person  who  is  sincerely 
devoted  to  a  cause  is  not  tender  of  his  personal  feelings  or 
comfort.  He  does  not  waste  time  in  trying  to  get  even 
with  opponents  but  deals  with  them  in  the  way  which  will 
best  further  his  purpose." 


298  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS 

The  teacher  feels  as  though  the  minister  were  preaching 
at  her  but  she  does  not  hear  much  more  of  the  sermon 
because  her  mind  is  busy  with  Mrs.  Brown  and  her  hopeful 
son.  By  the  time  the  benediction  is  pronounced,  she  has 
formulated  this  note : 

Dear  Mrs.  Brown : 

I  am  afraid  that  I  did  not  make  myself  clear.  I  had  no 
intention  of  disclaiming  responsibility  for  Fred's  progress.  I 
have  really  tried  very  hard  to  get  him  to  do  his  best  and  I  shall 
continue  to  do  so,  but  I  have  not  yet  discovered  how  to  make 
him  work.  I  have  no  doubt  that  your  influence  over  him  is 
stronger  than  mine  and  with  your  cooperation  I  can  certainly 
succeed  better.  The  after-school  work  is  merely  a  suggestion  — 
the  best  thing  that  I  could  think  of.  If  you  think  it  will  do 
him  any  harm,  you  are,  of  course,  wise  in  not  using  it.  A  weak 
body  would  be  too  high  a  price  to  pay  for  promotion.  I  shall 
keep  you  informed  of  Fred's  work,  but  please  understand  that 
my  purpose  is  not  to  find  fault  but  to  do  all  I  can  to  insure  his 
success. 

Yours  sincerely, 

Helen  Johnson 

When  this  letter  is  written,  the  teacher  reads  it  over  and 
says  to  herself :  "She'll  think  I'm  scared  and  am  trying  to 
mollify  her.  Never  mind,  if  I  succeed  in  my  purpose." 

On  Monday  she  tries  a  new  plan  with  the  boy.  She 
does  not  prod  but  tries  her  best  to  interest  him  and  arouse 
his  ambition.  On  giving  him  a  bit  of  praise  at  the  first 
opportunity,  she  whispers:  "Let's  see  if  we  can't  surprise 
your  mother.  I  had  to  send  her  a  discouraging  letter  last 
week.  I  want  to  send  her  a  good  one  next  Friday."  At 
the  close  of  school,  Master  Fred  starts  with  a  book  under 
his  arm.  The  teacher  calls  him  aside  and  says:  "I  don't 
think  your  mother  likes  to  have  you  take  books  home.  She 


COOPERATION   WITH   PARENTS  2QQ 

thinks  you  will  injure  your  health  if  you  study  outside  of 
school."  "I'm  no  baby,"  he  retorts,  "I  can  study  as  well 
as  anybody  else." 

The  next  day  he  brings  in  some  of  the  exercises  which  the 
teacher  planned  for  him  the  previous  week.  "Good!" 
she  exclaims,  "but  does  your  mother  know  that  you  did 
these?"  "Sure!"  he  replies,  "and  she  wants  you  to  let 
her  know  whether  they  are  right." 

PROBLEM  215.  —  A  teacher  "loses  his  head"  and  slaps  a  boy's 
face.  The  law  forbids  corporal  punishment  and  the  parent 
threatens  to  bring  suit  against  the  teacher. 

The  superintendent  sends  for  the  teacher  and  asks  for  an 
explanation.  The  teacher  admits  that  he  struck  the  boy 
but  excuses  himself  on  the  ground  that  the  pupil  was 
unbearably  insolent.  He  is  sure  that  the  youngster  was 
not  hurt.  All  the  talk  about  a  terrible  headache  and 
shattered  nerves  is  nonsense.  The  boy  is  a  bully  and  has 
been  in  the  habit  of  pummeling  smaller  boys.  He  ought 
to  have  had  a  real  thrashing.  His  whining  about  a  little 
slap  shows  his  yellow  streak.  If  he  gets  any  support  it 
will  ruin  the  discipline  of  the  school.  The  parent's  attitude 
is  merely  vindictive.  He  thrashes  the  boy  himself  un- 
mercifully, but  he  is  the  kind  who  has  a  perpetual  grouch 
and  is  always  looking  for  trouble. 

"That  may  all  be  true,"  says  the  superintendent,  "but 
what  are  you  going  to  do  about  it?"  "Nothing,"  the 
teacher  replies.  "If  you  and  the  school  board  stand  behind 
me,  the  matter  will  blow  over,  and  it  will  have  a  good 
effect  on  the  school."  "That  might  be  true,"  rejoins  the 
superintendent,  "if  it  were  not  for  two  things :  the  resent- 


300  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS 

ment  of  the  boy  and  his  father,  and  the  influence  of  un- 
thinking public  opinion.  Your  method  would  make  it 
very  difficult  to  get  any  cooperation  henceforth  from  either 
pupil  or  parent.  Even  if  the  matter  should  go  no  farther, 
you  would  have  two  enemies." 

"I'm  not  afraid  of  their  enmity,"  the  teacher  interrupts. 
"The  boy  is  a  bad  egg  and  the  father  is  an  intolerant 
bully.  I  have  no  desire  for  their  friendship." 

"What  are  you  trying  to  do?"  asks  the  superintendent. 
The  teacher  does  not  understand  the  import  of  the  question 
and  the  superintendent  goes  on :  "  We  are  aiming  to  develop 
citizens,  are  we  not?  Will  it  aid  in  the  solution  of  our 
problem  to  have  two  sullen  or  actively  hostile  opponents 
of  the  schools?  It  seems  to  me  that,  as  far  as  these  two 
are  concerned,  the  effect  will  be  deterioration  of  citizenship 
rather  than  improvement. 

I  said  a  moment  ago  that,  if  the  matter  should  go  no 
farther,  you  would  have  two  enemies,  but  it  will  go  farther 
unless  we  do  something  promptly  to  stop  it.  The  case  is 
already  being  talked  about  and  naturally  the  facts  will 
become  more  and  more  distorted  as  the  story  is  repeated. 
I  have  had  several  inquiries  by  telephone  and  a  reporter 
called  this  morning  for  a  'story.'  I  asked  him  to  delay  his 
report  until  I  had  had  opportunity  to  investigate  the  case 
but,  unless  we  give  him  a  statement  very  soon,  he  will 
be  sure  to  use  the  materials  for  a  sensational  story  which  are 
flying  about  and  will  soon  have  the  whole  town  excited. 
You  can  imagine  what  a  bad  effect  that  v/T.  have  upon  the 
schools." 

"Well,  what  do  you  think  I  ought  to  do?"  the  teacher 
asks.  "Let  us  think  it  out,"  says  the  superintendent. 


THE    FACE-TO-FACE    METHOD  301 

"We  want,  if  possible,  to  calm  down  the  parent  and  change 
the  boy's  attitude  and  we  want  to  maintain  the  confidence 
of  the  people  in  the  schools.  The  thing  which  feeds  excite- 
ment in  the  individual  and  in  the  mob  is  an  issue,  a  combat. 
If  we  can  destroy  the  issue,  the  feeling  will  subside.  You 
probably  know  of  cases  in  a  political  campaign  in  which  the 
enemy's  guns  have  been  silenced  by  removing  their  target. 
Now  what  are  the  attacks  aimed  at?"  "At  my  striking 
the  boy."  "Exactly  !  and  the  trouble  is  that  they  have  an 
unanswerable  argument.  The  law  forbids  the  use  of 
corporal  punishment.  You  cannot  successfully  defend  an 
infraction  of  the  law,  especially  when  it  can  be  made  to 
appear  as  abuse  of  a  child,  which  arouses  public  anger  more 
quickly  than  almost  anything  else.  Since  you  cannot  defend 
your  position,  suppose  you  abandon  it.  Why  not  admit 
frankly  that  you  were  wrong  in  using  force  and  regret  that 
you  did  so  on  the  impulse  of  the  moment?  That  would 
remove  the  issue  and  probably  cause  a  revulsion  of  feeling. 
Then  you  can  get  some  calm  consideration  of  the  other 
factors  in  the  case." 

"All  right,"  says  the  teacher,  "I'll  ask  the  father  to 
come  and  talk  it  over."  "No,  I  wouldn't  do  that,"  the 
superintendent  advises.  "In  his  present  mood,  he  would 
say,  'Let  him  come  to  me  if  he  wants  to.'  If  I  were  in  your! 
place,  I  would  spike  that  gun  by  going  straight  to  him." 

"He'll  think  I  am  afraid,  of  course,  and  am  trying  to  save 
my  skin."  "Very  likely,  although  that  will  depend  upon 
the  way  in  which  you  conduct  yourself.  At  any  rate,  if 
you  are  not  afraid,  if  you  are  doing  what  you  believe  to  be 
right,  you  need  not  be  greatly  concerned  about  what  he 
thinks  of  you." 

u  ***.«* 


302  RELATIONSHIP   WITH   PARENTS 

"I'll  go  to  see  him  this  evening,"  the  teacher  agrees. 
"Better  go  now.  You  will  find  him  at  his  place  of  business. 
Don't  let  the  fire  get  any  hotter." 

The  teacher  finds  the  parent  in  his  little  store  and  asks 
for  a  few  words  in  private.  The  man  says  brusquely:  "I 
don't  care  to  talk  to  you.  My  lawyer  is  attending  to  the 
case."  The  teacher  maintains  his  poise,  and  says:  "I 
won't  take  but  a  minute  of  your  time.  I  made  a  mistake 
and  I  would  rather  straighten  it  out  with  you."  This 
surprises  the  parent  and  he  allows  himself  to  listen.  The 
teacher  explains  that  he  acted  in  sudden  anger,  that  he  is 
aware  that  the  law  forbids  the  use  of  force  and  that  even  if 
it  were  not  so,  he  should  not,  as  a  teacher,  have  given  way 
to  temper. 

The  man's  first  impulse  is  to  make  some  sneering  re- 
mark about  backing  down,  but  the  teacher  doesn't  act 
like  a  coward  who  is  trying  to  crawl  out  of  a  hole.  He 
makes  no  excuses  —  merely  a  straightforward  statement. 
This  takes  the  fight  out  of  the  father's  manner,  and  as  the 
teacher  starts  to  go,  he  asks:  "What  did  the  little  devil 
do?"  A  friendly  talk  follows  during  which  the  parent 
offers  to  "lick  the  boy  in  good  shape"  whenever  the  teacher 
has  cause  for  complaint. 

The  latter  thinks  to  himself  that,  if  he  takes  advantage 
of  this  invitation,  the  punishment  will  probably  be  over- 
done. He  resolves  to  learn  how  to  deal  with  the  boy 
himself. 

The  father  remarks  that  he  "  blew  off  a  good  deal  of 
steam  "  earlier  in  the  morning  to  a  newspaper  chap  and 
volunteers  to  head  off  publication  of  the  story.  The 
evening  paper  contains  the  following  paragraph : 


THE    CHILD   LABOR   PROBLEM  303 

"  SUIT    SETTLED    OUT   OF   COURT 

It  was  reported  recently  that  a  teacher  in  our  local  schools 
would  be  the  defendant  in  a  lawsuit  on  the  charge  of  assaulting 
a  boy.  Our  representative  has  interviewed  the  parent  and 
learned  that  the  report  was  exaggerated  and  that  the  matter 
has  been  amicably  adjusted  between  the  two  parties." 

PROBLEM  216.  —  A  parent  insists  on  taking  his  fourteen-year- 
old  daughter  out  of  school.  The  teacher  tries  to  convince  him 
that  he  is  injuring  the  child  and  is  acting  in  opposition  to  the 
public  welfare,  but  the  parent  declares  that  she  will  be  married 
soon  and  this  is  his  only  chance  to  get  back  part  of  what  she  has 
cost  him. 

The  teacher  is  shocked  by  the  father's  apparent  indiffer- 
ence to  the  child's  welfare.  That  a  man  would  frankly 
declare  that  he  is  intent  on  getting  back  the  money  which  he 
has  invested  in  the  raising  of  his  daughter  seems  incredible. 
It  is  as  if  he  were  raising  pigs.  She  thinks  he  is  a  villain. 

She  goes  to  the  superintendent  to  urge  him  not  to  grant 
working  papers  for  the  girl.  "  I  wish  I  could  avoid  it," 
he  says.  "Unfortunately  the  law  gives  me  no  power  to 
withhold  the  papers  since  she  is  fourteen  and  has  completed 
the  fifth  grade.  The  law  ought  to  be  changed  but  that 
will  be  hard  to  accomplish.  There  are  very  strong  influ- 
ences which  have  been  able  so  far  to  prevent  all  attempts 
to  raise  the  limit  of  compulsory  education." 

"Well,  can't  you  induce  the  parent  to  allow  the  child  to 
remain  in  school?  "  the  teacher  asks.  "  I  will  try,  of  course," 
he  replies,  "but  I  have  very  little  hope  of  success.  I  have 
wasted  endless  time  in  scores  of  just  such  cases.  In  hardly 
one  of  them  have  I  succeeded  in  making  any  impression. 
There  is  a  large  group  o'f  people,  chiefly  foreigners,  who  have 
always  been  used  to  the  practice  of  putting  children  to 


304  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS 

work  early  and  taking  all  their  earnings.  The  girls  marry 
very  young  and  neither  they  nor  their  parents  have  any 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  education." 

The  teacher  then  talks  to  the  girl,  trying  to  show  her  that 
she  is  throwing  away  a  chance  to  make  the  most  of  herself, 
and  that  when  it  is  too  late  she  will  realize  the  mistake. 
The  girl  does  not  oppose  these  arguments  but  insists  that 
the  family  needs  her  help  and  that  her  father  will  not 
allow  her  to  stay  in  school.  The  teacher  approves  her 
desire  to  help  but  declares  that  she  will  be  able  to  contrib- 
ute much  more  to  the  family  income  after  she  has  had  more 
education.  This  seems  to  make  no  impression  and  the 
teacher  soon  realizes  that  the  girl  herself  is  determined  to 
leave.  It  seems  useless  to  continue  the  struggle.  The 
teacher  acknowledges  defeat,  the  papers  are  granted,  and 
the  girl  goes  to  work  in  a  mill. 

A  few  months  later,  the  teacher  reads  an  article  on  "Chil- 
dren in  Industry."  The  writer  gives  statistics  showing 
that  a  large  percentage  of  children  leave  school  before  they 
have  finished  the  elementary  school  course.  He  gives  the 
facts  in  regard  to  employment,  showing  that  many  of  these 
children  drift  from  one  employment  to  another  and  are 
often  out  of  work.  He  says  that  only  a  very  small  fraction 
of  boys  and  girls  under  eighteen  are  employed  in  positions 
which  afford  any  educational  development.  "The  worst 
of  it  is,"  he  says,  "that  these  future  citizens  are  deprived 
of  all  training  tending  to  fit  them  for  success  in  a  vocation 
or  for  intelligent  performance  of  civic  duties.  They  leave 
school  before  they  are  mature  enough  to  appreciate  political 
and  social  problems,  and  the  result  is  that  ideas  which  are 
needed  for  breadth  of  view  and  ideals  which  are  fundamental 


THE  CHILD  LABOR  PROBLEM  305 

in  a  right  attitude  toward  the  public  welfare  can  be  imparted 
to  only  a  relatively  small  part  of  the  rising  generation." 
The  article  ends  with  these  words:  "Here  is  a  menace  to 
our  boasted  democracy.  If  disaster  is  to  be  averted,  it 
behooves  our  educators  to  see  to  it  that  the  public  schools 
reach  all  of  our  future  citizens." 

The  teacher  finds  herself  in  full  sympathy  with  the 
author.  "When  will  people  wake  up?"  she  asks  im- 
patiently. Then  a  remark  occurs  to  her  which  she  heard 
in  a  recent  address  on  civic  responsibility.  "Our  motto," 
said  the  speaker,  "seems  to  be  'Let  George  do  it.'  We 
inveigh  against  the  defects  in  our  body  politic  and  our 
social  order.  We  say:  'That  ought  to  be  changed'  and 
'Somebody  ought  to  get  busy,'  but  we  ourselves  are  too 
fully  occupied  with  our  personal  affairs  to  take  hold  of  our 
own  end  of  the  problem." 

"Is  there  anything  which  a  teacher  can  do?"  she  asks 
herself.  Her  experience  with  the  Italian  girl  comes  to 
mind.  "I  certainly  tried  my  best,"  she  says  to  herself. 
"I  didn't  call  for  George  that  time."  Then  she  remembers 
another  of  the  lecturer's  points,  "We  can't  expect  to  solve 
these  problems  at  an  afternoon  tea.  To  get  anywhere,  we 
must  study  them  and  keep  working  on  them  —  for  years 
if  necessary."  The  teacher  reflects  upon  the  superin- 
tendent's description  of  his  wasted  efforts.  At  first  she 
accepts  this  as  evidence  of  the  futility  of  any  work  which 
she  might  do,  but  presently  it  occurs  to  her,  in  connection 
with  the  lecturer's  contention  that  such  a  problem  must  be 
studied  and  persistently  attacked,  that  after  all  each 
separate  case  has  not  received  very  thorough  consideration. 
The  efforts  have  been  limited  to  a  few  attempts  to  persuade 

E.  T.   PEOB.  —  20 


306  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   PARENTS 

parents  and  children.  "If  the  problem  is  so  vital  to  the 
welfare  of  the  country,"  she  thinks,  "a  way  must  be 
found  to  solve  it.  Perhaps  I  can  make  a  thorough  study 
of  a  single  case.  That  might  show  the  real  causes  of  the 
difficulty  even  if  it  does  not  discover  the  remedy." 

She  writes  a  letter  to  her  former  pupil,  expressing  a 
desire  to  know  how  she  is  getting  along,  and  inviting  the 
girl  to  call  at  her  home.  She  finds  that  there  are  already 
signs  of  deterioration.  The  girl  has  coarsened.  Her 
language  is  crude  and  her  dress  shows  a  cheap  imitation 
of  the  extreme  in  style.  Nothing  uplifting  seems  to  have 
come  into  her  life  since  she  left  school.  Asked  what  she 
does  for  fun,  the  girl  says  she  doesn't  have  much,  as  her 
father  will  not  allow  her  to  go  out  evenings  unless  he  goes 
with  her.  The  teacher  modifies  her  estimate  of  his  villainy. 
He  evidently  has  some  concern  for  his  daughter's  welfare. 
A  good  many  parents  of  American  ancestry  might  well 
copy  this  type  of  control. 

By  a  little  artful  fishing,  she  secures  an  invitation  to  visit 
the  girl's  home.  She  finds  a  family  of  ten :  father,  mother, 
grandmother,  and  seven  children,  closely  packed  in  a  little 
house.  She  thinks  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  girl's  help  is 
needed  to  support  so  many,  but  she  learns  that  they  own 
the  home  and  are  rapidly  paying  off  the  mortgage.  In 
the  rear  of  the  house  is  a  very  well-kept  garden ;  the  chil- 
dren are  well  dressed ;  and  at  subsequent  visits  she  dis- 
covers that  they  have  plenty  to  eat,  although  the  food  is 
of  a  much  cheaper  kind  than  she  herself  is  used  to.  She 
gets  some  ideas  of  economy  and  thrift  and  comes  to  respect 
these  new  friends.  It  is  certainly  not  true  that  ambition  is 
lacking,  even  if  it  does  not  include  education  of  girls. 


THE    CHILD    LABOR   PROBLEM  307 

The  father  speaks  very  broken  English  and  can  under- 
stand only  the  simplest  statements.  The  mother  and 
grandmother  do  not  understand  a  word  and  conversation  is 
carried  on  through  the  children  as  interpreters.  The  teacher 
discovers  that,  not  only  in  language  but  in  customs  and 
ideals,  these  people  are  thoroughly  foreign.  Her  real 
discovery  is  that  they  are  not  the  ignorant,  obstinate, 
sordid  people  that  she  had  pictured.  They  are  wise  in 
their  own  way  and  they  have  enthusiasms  and  ideals. 
The  secret  is  that  they  are  different.  They  do  not  fit  into 
their  American  environment. 

The  teacher  muses  on  the  implications  of  this  discovery. 
It  is  all  wrong  that  these  people  should  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion  and  contempt.  They  have  much  to  contribute 
to  the  community,  she  feels,  if  people  would  only  learn  to 
understand  them  and  bring  them  out.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  they  are  to  live  in  America,  tJiey  must  learn  the 
things  that  America  at  its  best  stands  for.  Before  they 
can  fit  into  American  life  they  must  learn  its  language. 
She  is  rather  appalled  by  the  magnitude  of  the  problem. 
She  has  seen  enough  to  know  that  the  differences  which  she 
has  noticed  are  deep-seated,  traditional.  No  superficial 
campaign  of  Americanism  will  produce  anything  more  than 
a  surface  change. 

But  she  has  learned  certain  things  through  her  contact 
with  this  one  family.  She  has  established  a  really  friendly 
relationship.  She  feels  that  they  have  greater  confidence 
in  the  school  system  and  understand  a  little  better  what  the 
schools  are  trying  to  do.  The  girl  has  responded  to  her 
friendliness  and  is  beginning  to  take  an  interest  in  books 
and  ideas  which  are  uplifting.  She  becomes  acquainted 


308  RELATIONSHIP   WITH   PARENTS 

with  other  Italian  girls  and  meets  them  as  a  group  occa- 
sionally. 

These  informal  meetings  lead  to  the  formation  of  a  club, 
and  the  teacher  has  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  these 
few  young  people  are  developing  toward  a  fine  womanhood 
and  are  coming  to  accept  some  of  the  ideals  which  she  likes 
to  call  American.  The  club,  in  order  to  raise  some  money, 
prepares  an  entertainment  consisting  of  Italian  music,  folk 
dances,  and  folk  tales.  The  teacher  induces  some  of  the 
prominent  citizens  to  attend  and  smiles  with  satisfaction 
at  their  surprise  and  admiration. 

She  frequently  reports  her  experiences  to  the  superin- 
tendent and  discusses  the  problem  with  him.  The  result 
is  that  her  study  of  the  problem  is  given  a  broader  scope  by 
an  appointment,  to  which  she  is  to  give  her  full  time,  as 
educational  director  in  the  foreign  colony.  About  this 
time  the  girl  whose  abandonment  of  school  first  started  the 
teacher  on  a  new  career  rushes  into  her  little  office  with 
shining  eyes.  "Hurrah!"  she  cries,  "My  father  says  that 
Angelina  (a  younger  sister)  may  go  through  high  school." 

PROBLEM  217.  —  A  mother  makes  it  a  practice  to  visit  her 
daughter's  class  frequently  and  to  make  critical  comments  on 
what  she  observes.  She  is  a  college  graduate  and  shows  a  rather 
lofty  condescension  in  advising  teachers  in  regard  to  proper 
methods  of  education.  Most  of  the  teachers  who  have  been 
through  the  ordeal  consider  the  woman  a  nuisance  or  a  bugaboo, 
according  to  their  temperaments.  The  teacher  of  the  class 
to  which  the  girl  is  about  to  be  promoted  tries  to  think  out  the 
best  way  of  meeting  the  problem. 

The  teacher  recalls  the  various  attitudes  of  teachers  who 
have  had  the  child.  One  was  combative.  She  used  to 
tell  of  heated  arguments  in  which  she  gave  the  woman  "as 


EDUCATING    PARENTS  309 

good  as  she  sent,"  until  the  latter  would  go  to  the  principal 
to  complain.  The  teachers  used  to  say  that  the  principal 
always  managed  to  have  an  important  engagement  which 
would  take  him  away  from  the  building  whenever  he  learned 
that  Mrs.  W.  was  visiting  school. 

Another  teacher  used  to  be  very  cold  and  formal,  listening 
impassively  to  the  mother's  vigorous  denunciation  of  course 
of  study  or  methods  or  class  behavior.  She  never  allowed 
herself  to  be  drawn  into  a  debate,  but  neither  did  she  pay 
the  slightest  attention  to  the  woman's  views. 

Still  another  resorted  to  bluff  and  frequently  regaled  her 
associates  with  dramatic  reproductions  of  interviews  in 
which  she  appeared  to  be  greatly  impressed  by  Mrs.  W.'s 
superior  knowledge  and  made  an  elaborate  show  of  following 
her  advice.  In  reality  she  stuck  persistently  to  her  own 
methods. 

The  child's  present  teacher,  of  rather  timid  personality, 
is  really  cowed  by  the  stronger  will.  She  tries  to  avoid 
irritating  the  visitor,  even  abandoning  temporarily  some 
items  of  classroom  procedure,  which  in  her  heart  she  believes 
to  be  sound.  She  is  punctiliously  careful  in  her  treat- 
ment of  the  girl  and  often  permits  her  to  work  in  a  different 
way  from  that  which  she  requires  other  children  to  use. 

None  of  these  methods  satisfies  our  teacher.  She  says 
to  herself :  "  We  school  people  often  complain  of  the  indiffer- 
ence of  parents.  We  urge  their  cooperation.  Mrs.  W. 
is  certainly  not  indifferent.  She  is  apparently  willing  to 
take  rather  more  than  her  share  of  responsibility.  If  we 
are  sincere  in  our  desire  for  cooperation,  we  ought  not  to 
meet  her  with  rebuff  or  try  to  render  all  her  efforts  futile. 
Of  course,  she  must  not  be  permitted  to  dominate  the  school, 


310  RELATIONSHIP   WITH   PARENTS 

but  neither  must  I  be  cocksure  in  every  case  at  issue. 
Cooperation  does  not  consist  in  having  the  other  fellow  do 
as  one  wants.  We  must  try  to  agree  on  what  we  are  trying 
to  do  and  learn  to  work  together." 

On  the  last  day  of  school,  when  the  teacher  is  trying  to 
make  every  minute  count,  Mrs.  W.  sweeps  majestically 
into  her  room.  The  teacher  exclaims,  "Bother!"  under 
her  breath,  but  she  fights  down  the  impulse  to  finish  the 
task  upon  which  she  is  engaged,  and  advances  with  a  cordial 
smile  and  outstretched  hand.  "Good  morning,  Mrs.  W.," 
she  says  heartily,  "I'm  so  happy  at  the  prospect  of  having 
Lucille  in  my  class  next  year.  I  want  to  have  a  talk  with 
you.  Sit  here  for  a  moment  while  I  put  the  children  to 
work."  She  places  a  chair  and  immediately  gives  her 
attention  to  the  class. 

The  wroman  was  all  ready,  when  she  entered  the  room, 
to  give  the  teacher  some  positive  instruction  about  her 
daughter.  Her  manner  is  masterful  and  she  never  hesitates 
to  interrupt  a  class  and  never  lowers  her  tone  of  voice  in 
addressing  a  teacher,  but  this  young  person  has  met  the 
situation  so  promptly,  with  such  self-confidence  and  at  the 
same  time  so  courteously  that  for  once  she  is  surprised  into 
sitting  down  without  a  word. 

After  a  few  minutes,  the  teacher  draws  up  a  chair  and 
says  briskly  :  "This  is  such  a  terribly  busy  day  that  I  can 
steal  only  a  moment.  If  you  will  set  a  time  I  should  be 
glad  to  call  upon  you  or  make  an  appointment  here  if  you 
would  prefer.  I  have  heard  so  much  about  your  interest 
in  the  school  that  I  am  looking  forward  to  some  real  co- 
operation." The  woman  starts  on  her  lecture  but  the 
teacher  soon  finds  opportunity  to  say  in  a  lower  tone  but 


EDUCATING   PARENTS  311 

with  no  embarrassed  effort  to  suggest  that  the  conversation 
is  disturbing:  "I  am  so  glad  to  have  your  advice.  Now, 
when  may  I  see  you  to  go  over  the  matter  thoroughly?" 
Mrs.  W.  wants  to  continue,  but  she  cannot  very  well  refuse 
to  meet  the  teacher's  confident  lead,  so  she  names  a  time 
and  is  bowed  out  under  the  controlling  influence  of  the 
other's  smile. 

At  the  subsequent  interview,  the  teacher  at  first  allows  the 
parent  to  do  most  of  the  talking.  She  listens  attentively, 
studying  the  speaker  and  trying  to  keep  an  open  mind. 
Occasionally  she  interposes  a  question  which  leads  the  other 
woman  to  realize  that  she  herself  has  not  a  perfectly  secure 
basis  for  her  opinions. 

One  complaint  is  that  the  children  are  not  taught  good 
manners.  They  are  given  entirely  too  much  freedom. 
Lucille  has  been  brought  up  with  the  greatest  care  but 
frequently  she  needs  rebuke  for  being  too  forward  in  ex- 
pressing her  views,  or  for  using  vulgar  expressions.  If 
this  continues  the  mother  will  feel  obliged  to  send  her  to  a 
private  school. 

The  teacher  agrees  that  children  fall  far  short  of  her 
ideals  in  habits  of  courtesy  and  that  the  schools  should 
take  responsibility  for  training  them.  She  points  out, 
however,  that  they  are  often  subjected  to  influences  out- 
side the  school  which  affect  both  language  and  manners. 
Schools  have  tried  for  years  to  fix  standards  of  conduct 
by  rigid  control  during  school  hours,  but  the  effort  has  been 
vain  because,  when  relieved  of  supervision,  the  children  have 
reverted  to  the  easier  paths.  "Why  even  Lucille,  who  has 
had  far  more  careful  attention  than  we  can  hope  to  give  in 
school  to  any  one  child,  sometimes  falls  from  grace." 


312  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS 

"We  are  working  now,"  the  teacher  continues,  "on  a 
different  theory.  We  believe  that  habits  which  are  de- 
veloped under  strict  control  are  liable  to  fail  in  a  different 
environment  where  control  is  absent.  We  are  trying  to 
lead  the  children  to  think,  to  form  ideals,  to  take  respon- 
sibility for  their  own  conduct.  We  cannot  expect  to  have 
a  result  which  is  outwardly  so  perfect  as  when  conduct  is 
directed  by  a  forceful  adult,  but  if  we  could  look  inside  the 
child's  mind,  we  might  find  that  a  more  permanent  change 
is  going  on.  If  a  child  really  wants  to  be  courteous,  is 
there  not  a  better  chance  of  his  resisting  degrading  influences 
than  if  he  has  merely  been  forced  to  be  courteous  for  a 
pa.rt  of  the  time?  For  my  own  part,  I  can  forgive  rude- 
ness in  a  child  when  it  is  due  to  ignorance  or  lack  of  appre- 
ciation of  the  significance  of  his  act.  If  he  means  well 
we  can  afford  to  be  patient  and  take  time  to  bring  about  an 
improvement." 

This  is  a  new  idea  to  the  mother.  She  does  not  accept 
it  at  once,  but  it  lies  in  her  mind  and  leads  to  a  more  sympa- 
thetic observation  of  the  freedom  which  children  are  per- 
mitted in  school  and  which  she  has  criticized  so  severely. 

Another  complaint  has  to  do  with  the  teaching  of  spelling. 
"It  is  deplorable,"  Mrs.  W.  declares  with  an  emphasis 
which  admits  no  denial.  "Children  are  no  longer  taught 
to  spell.  Lucille's  spelling  is  atrocious.  There  is  nothing 
which  serves  to  distinguish  the  cultured  person  from  the 
boor  so  quickly  as  his  spelling.  Mistakes  in  spelling  should 
not  be  tolerated.  Children  should  be  drilled  until  they  are 
letter  perfect." 

"I  sympathize  with  your  point  of  view,"  the  teacher 
replies.  "I  confess  that  a  mistake  in  spelling  irritates  me 


EDUCATING   PARENTS  313 

more  than  an  error  in  judgment  or  even  a  moral  fault,  but 
I  wonder  if  that  is  not  because  spelling  is  so  easy  for  me  that 
I  detect  a  mistake  instantly.  I  have  tried  to  school  myself 
to  be  sympathetic  with  those  —  and  they  seem  to  be 
many  —  who  find  spelling  very  difficult.  I  wonder  if  it 
is  possible  for  everybody  to  learn  to  spell  perfectly  without 
sacrificing  something  even  more  important." 

"It  used  to  be  done,"  Mrs.  W.  declares.  "In  my  day, 
spelling  matches  aroused  as  much  excitement  as  an  athletic 
contest  does  to-day."  "We  have  spelling  matches  too," 
the  teacher  says  pleasantly,  "only  we  try  to  give  all  an 
equal  chance.  The  old  matches  gave  the  most  practice  to 
the  best  spellers." 

"Well,  there  is  no  doubt  that  spelling  is  getting  to  be  a 
lost  art,"  Mrs.  W.  declares  with  finality.  At  this  the 
teacher  says  sweetly,  "I  wonder  if  you  have  heard  of  the 
Springfield  Tests."  Mrs.  W.  has  never  heard  of  them  so 
the  teacher  explains  how  some  examination  papers,  both 
questions  and  pupils'  answers,  were  discovered  in  Spring- 
field, Massachusetts,  fifty  years  after  they  were  written. 
"These  tests,"  she  goes  on  to  say,  "have  been  given  in  many 
schools  and  the  results  published.  All  the  evidence  seems  to 
show  that  school  boys  and  girls  to-day  do  better  in  spelling, 
as  well  as  in  other  subjects,  than  even  older  pupils  did  two 
generations  earlier.  May  I  send  you  a  little  book  which 
gives  an  account  of  these  tests?  I  am  sure  you  would 
be  interested." 

There  is  further  talk  about  books,  children's  dress, 
etc.,  and  the  interview  comes  to  an  end  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  mutual  friendliness  and  respect.  The  teacher 
promptly  sends  the  booklet  and,  from  time  to  time,  refers 


314  RELATIONSHIP   WITH   PARENTS 

the  parent  to  other  books  and  articles.  Mrs.  W.  comes  to 
realize  that  people  of  ability  have  been  studying  education. 
She  begins  to  be  less  sure  of  her  own  convictions  and  more 
and  more  interested  in  studying  the  problem. 

After  the  new  school  year  begins,  she  visits  the  class 
frequently  and  has  many  earnest  talks  with  the  teacher. 
She  follows  the  progress  of  the  work  with  attention  and 
becomes  interested  in  other  children  besides  her  own.  The 
teacher  finds  her  a  real  help,  although  she  has  to  use  diplo- 
macy at  times  to  prevent  interruption  of  the  class.  The 
mother  uses  her  influence  to  secure  some  desired  equipment, 
and  contributes  pictures  for  the  walls  of  the  schoolroom  and 
books  for  the  class  library.  She  takes  the  lead  in  securing 
the  cooperation  of  other  parents  in  regard  to  children's  social 
activities  and  control  of  diet.  Before  the  close  of  the  term, 
she  brings  about  the  organization  of  a  Home  and  School 
Association  and  is  elected  president. 

One  day  after  the  new  association  has  already  demon- 
strated its  usefulness,  the  teacher  is  chatting  with  the  prin- 
cipal on  the  subject  and  expressing  admiration  of  the  energy 
which  Mrs.  W.  has  displayed  in  efforts  for  the  benefit  of 
the  school.  The  principal  says,  with  a  smile:  "Do  you 
know,  I  used  to  think  that  that  woman  was  a  pest.  Now 
I  am  almost  ready  to  say  that  she  is  the  best  asset  that  this 
school  possesses." 

PRINCIPLES  IN  REGARD  TO  RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS 

i.  The  influence  of  parents  over  a  child  is  often  great.  Their 
opportunities  for  affecting  character  are  greater  than  those  of 
the  teacher,  because  theirs  is  a  continuous  influence  and  a  more 
intimate  one.  At  any  rate,  it  must  be  taken  into  account,  if 


RELATIONSHIP   WITH   PARENTS  315 

the  teacher  is  sincere  in  his  desire  to  bring  about  the  best  develop- 
ment of  the  child. 

2.  For   the  greatest  effect,  there  should  be  mutual  under- 
standing  between  parent   and   teacher,   a   common   purpose, 
and  sympathetic  cooperation. 

3.  The  teacher  ought  not  to  take  a  personal  view  of  his  re- 
lationship with  a  parent.     The  important  thing  is  to  obtain 
the  best  results  for  the  child.     The  teacher  should  study  the 
parent,  and  aim  to  act  so  as  to  get  the  kind  of  response  which 
will  contribute  most  to  the  purpose  in  hand. 

4.  Antagonizing  a  parent  defeats  the  teacher's  main  purpose. 
It  may  be  a  personal  satisfaction  to  "  get  even  "  after  unreason- 
able or  unfair  treatment,  but  in  such  a  case  the  teacher's  feelings 
are  put  before  the  welfare  of  the  child. 

5.  The  parent's  viewpoint  should  be  appreciated.     It  need 
not  be  accepted  but  it  must  not  be  ignored. 

6.  Cases   of   disagreement   or   misunderstanding   should   be 
settled,  whenever  possible,  between  the  teacher  and  the  parent 

—  not  through  a  third  party :  principal,  superintendent,  school- 
board  member. 

7.  A  teacher  should  strive  to  win  the  confidence  of  parents. 
The  best  way  is  to  deserve  it. 

8.  Teachers  should  welcome  every  sincere  effort  of  parents  to 
cooperate. 

9.  In  order  to  accomplish  his  purpose,  the  teacher  must  take 
some  responsibility  for  giving  to  parents  sound  ideas  of  edu- 
cation and  for  developing  a  willingness  to  cooperate. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 
PROBLEM  218. 

Dear  Miss  Johnson : 

Please  excuse  Helen's  absence  yesterday.  She  was  out 
late  the  night  before,  so  I  let  her  sleep  and  she  didn't  feel  like 
going  to  school  in  the  afternoon.  Please  let  her  leave  at  three 
o'clock  this  afternoon  so  that  she  can  rest  a  little  before  she  goes 
to  dancing  school. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Antoinette  Cilley  (Mrs.  A.  J.) 


316  RELATIONSHIP  WITH   PARENTS 

PROBLEM  219.  —  A  teacher  receives  some  attention  from  the 
parents  of  one  of  her  pupils.  She  is  entertained  at  their  house 
and  receives  an  expensive  present  at  Christmas.  Later  in  the 
year  the  mother  intimates  that  the  child  ought  to  have  the  lead- 
ing part  in  an  assembly  program  given  by  the  class.  "  She  is 
so  clever  and  she  has  set  her  heart  upon  it." 

PROBLEM  220.  —  The  parents  of  a  pupil  who  has  failed  of  pro- 
motion are  very  angry.  They  say  that  they  had  received  no 
intimation  that  their  boy  was  not  doing  well. 

PROBLEM  221.  —  A  parent  goes  to  a  member  of  the  school 
board  with  a  complaint  against  his  son's  teacher.  He  declares 
that  the  teacher  publicly  insulted  the  family.  The  teacher  is 
at  first  at  a  loss  to  know  where  the  parent  got  such  an  idea,  but 
recalls  that  he  rebuked  the  boy  for  sharpening  a  pencil  on  the 
floor  and  asked :  "  Does  your  mother  permit  you  to  do  that  at 
home?  "  It  turns  out  that  the  boy  reported  the  remark :  "You 
haven't  learned  proper  manners  at  home." 

PROBLEM  222.  —  A  parent  ridicules  the  method  in  use  in  the 
school  for  teaching  penmanship.  He  tells  his  daughter  not  to 
make  certain  letters  like  the  models  furnished  by  the  school. 

PROBLEM  223.  —  A  parent  "  calls  down  "  a  teacher  for  pre- 
suming to  seat  her  child  beside  a  negro  girl,  and  demands  that 
the  seat  be  changed  forthwith.  Every  seat  in  the  room  is  filled. 

PROBLEM  224.  — A  teacher  is  much  dissatisfied  with  a  boy  in 
her  class.  He  is  frequently  late,  plays  truant,  and  is  inattentive 
in  class.  She  writes  notes  to  the  parent  without  effect.  She 
has  never  visited  the  home. 

PROBLEM  225.  —  A  movement  is  started  to  form  a  Parent- 
Teacher  Association.  Teachers  are  asked  to  express  their  views 
on  the  question  of  its  desirability. 

PROBLEM  226.  —  A  boy  is  directed  to  remain  after  school  for 
misbehavior.  At  dismissal  time,  he  starts  to  go  with  the  other 
pupils.  The  teacher  orders  him  to  his  seat  and  he  replies :  "  My 
mother  told  me  to  come  straight  home  at  the  close  of  school." 


RELATIONSHIP  WITH  PARENTS  317 

"  I  don't  care  what  your  mother  told  you,"  the  teacher  retorts. 
"  Do  as  I  tell  you  !  "  He  takes  his  seat  and  maintains  a  sullen 
manner  until  he  is  dismissed  a  half  hour  later.  The  parent  is 
very  indignant  and  complains  to  the  principal  that  she  was 
unable  to  keep  a  very  important  engagement  because  the  boy 
did  not  return  as  directed,  to  take  care  of  the  baby.  She  main- 
tains a  hostile  attitude  toward  the  teacher,  and  the  boy  resists 
all  attempts  to  restore  a  friendly  relationship.  The  teacher 
wonders  whether  she  could  have  handled  the  case  more  effec- 
tively, and  what  she  ought  to  do  to  meet  the  situation  which  has 
arisen. 

PROBLEM  227.  —  A  high  school  teacher  imposes  a  severe  penalty 
upon  a  student  for  what  he  regards  as  direct  disobedience.  The 
student  reports  the  matter  at  home,  protesting  that  she  did  not 
hear  the  teacher's  direction.  The  father  is  furious  and  demands 
that  the  teacher  apologize  to  his  daughter.  The  latter  realizes 
that  he  may  have  been  mistaken,  but  fears  that  if  he  recedes 
from  his  position,  the  girl  will  think  that  she  has  "  put  one  over 
on  him."  Besides,  the  father's  attitude  is  so  combative  that 
it  would  be  humiliating  to  "  back  down." 

REFERENCES 

King,  I.,  Education  for  Efficiency,  Chapters  V,  VI. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Engelhardt,  N.,  The  Classroom  Teacher. 

Patri,  A.,  A  Schoolmaster  of  the  Great  City. 

Millard,  C.  N.,  A  Parent's  Job. 

Sechrist,  F.  K.,  Education  and  the  General  Welfare,  Chapter  XXII. 


CHAPTER  XV 
PROBLEMS   OF  PROFESSIONAL  GROWTH 

KEEPING  OUT  OF  THE  RUTS;  LEARNING  THE  TRADE; 
THE  N.  E.  A. ;  MAKING  TEACHING  RESPECTABLE 

PROBLEM  228.  —  A  superintendent  expresses  the  view  that 
teachers  ought  not  to  teach  the  same  grade  continuously  for 
many  years.  He  thinks  that  this  practice  tends  to  narrow  the 
teacher's  interest  and  limit  her  knowledge  of  the  whole  process 
of  education.  A  teacher  who  has  taught  the  first  grade  for 
ten  years  is  unwilling  to  change  —  says  she  is  a  first-grade 
teacher.  The  superintendent  agrees  to  give  careful  considera- 
tion to  her  views  but  insists  that  she  give  convincing  reasons 
why  the  change  should  not  be  made. 

THE  teacher  is  not  inclined  to  take  very  seriously  the 
superintendent's  request  for  reasons.  She  simply  does  not 
like  to  be  drawn  into  an  argument  with  him.  To  her  it  is 
not  a  question  of  logic  at  all.  She  is  supported  in  this  view 
by  many  other  teachers.  One  of  them  says :  "Things  have 
come  to  a  pretty  pass  if  a  teacher's  preferences  are  not  to  be 
considered  when  she  has  taught  as  long  as  you  have." 

One  of  the  ablest  teachers  in  the  school  takes  a  different 
position.  He  says:  "I  think  you  ought  to  meet  his  chal- 
lenge. Most  of  us  hate  the  idea  of  making  a  change  but 
we  shall  be  putting  ourselves  in  a  bad  light  if  we  refuse  to 
meet  arguments  on  the  other  side  and  show  that  there  is  a 
sound  basis  for  our  feeling.  I'll  tell  you  a  scheme.  Just 
for  the  fun  of  it,  I'll  be  Mr.  P.  and  you  try  to  convince 
me.  I'll  pick  all  the  flaws  that  I  can  find  in  your  argument, 

318 


KEEPING    OUT    OF   THE    RUTS  319 

It  will  be  good  practice  and,  between  us,  we  can  probably 
work  out  a  brief  which  will  floor  him." 

This  suggestion  promises  good  fun  as  the  teacher  who  is 
to  impersonate  the  superintendent  is  a  clever  mimic.  The 
other  teachers  applaud  the  idea  and  a  date  is  set  for  the  de- 
bate. Both  teachers  make  careful  preparation  and  a  large 
group  of  teachers  assembles  "to  see  the  fight  pulled  off." 

The  pseudo  Mr.  P.  is  seated  at  a  desk  piled  high  with 
papers.  He  wears  big  horn-rimmed  spectacles  somewhat 
exaggerating  a  prominent  feature  of  the  real  superintend- 
ent's appearance.  The  audience  titters  with  delight  as  he 
peers  over  the  top  of  his  glasses  and  executes  other  charac- 
teristic mannerisms.  A  teacher,  mimicking  the  superin- 
tendent's secretary,  enters  and  announces  that  Miss  F. 
has  come  to  keep  her  appointment.  "Ask  her  to  come  in," 
orders  the  superintendent.  "Take  a  chair,"  he  says  as 
Miss  F.  appears,  "I'll  be  ready  in  a  moment,"  and  he  makes 
a  show  of  completing  the  perusal  and  signing  of  some  letters. 

"Now,"  says  Mr.  P.,  "let's  get  to  work.  Have  you 
changed  your  view?"  "No,"  replies  the  teacher,  "but 
I  am  prepared  to  defend  my  position."  "Good,"  says  the 
superintendent,  "I  am  open  to  conviction.  Go  ahead." 

The  teacher  presents  her  case  as  follows:  "I  have  been 
teaching  the  first  grade  for  ten  years.  I  feel  that  I  know  the 
work  thoroughly.  I  know  the  course  of  study  and  I  have 
worked  out  methods  which  are  effective  with  first  graders. 
I  have  accumulated  a  lot  of  seat-work  material  which  has 
cost  me  many  hours  of  work.  I  do  not  think  it  would  be 
fair  to  make  me  start  all  over  again.  It  would  be  like 
making  a  man,  who  has  achieved  success  in  one  line  of 
business,  abandon  that  and  start  another." 


320  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

The  counterfeit  superintendent  remarks:  "Successful 
men  often  enlarge  their  enterprises.  I  know  of  men  who 
have  worked  very  hard  to  build  up  a  business  and,  when  they 
have  had  it  running  smoothly,  have  branched  out  into  a 
bigger  field,  leaving  the  original  department  in  other  hands 
and  giving  their  attention  to  the  new  one. " 

"That  is  not  a  parallel  case  at  all,"  retorts  Miss  F. 
"It  is  his  own  business.  He  enlarges  it  to  make  money 
for  himself.  What  should  I  get  out  of  the  change  which 
you  propose  except  a  lot  of  extra  work?" 

"I  think  you  would  get  a  lot  more,"  the  superintendent 
answers.  "The  men  that  I  know  have  apparently  gained 
something  besides  money  when  they  have  enlarged  their 
fields.  Indeed  they  have  not  always  found  the  extension 
profitable  from  a  financial  standpoint,  but  all  of  them,  I 
think,  have  become  bigger  men.  Even  when  they  have 
been  disappointed  in  the  return,  the  added  experience  and 
the  effort  to  master  new  problems  have  seemed  to  make  them 
broader-minded  and  more  self-reliant. " 

There  is  a  pause  at  this  point.  Miss  F.  seems  to  be 
thinking  about  the  superintendent's  last  point.  She  is  not 
ready  with  a  new  argument.  The  superintendent  goes  on : 
"You  say  that  my  illustration  is  not  a  parallel  case. 
Granted,  but  it  has  some  points  of  similarity.  The  change 
will  not  bring  you  more  money,  at  least  there  is  no  certainty 
of  its  doing  so,  but  then,  money  is  not  your  chief  motive 
in  teaching,  is  it?" 

"Certainly  not,"  snaps  Miss  F.  "If  it  were,  I  should 
not  be  a  teacher.  I  get  my  satisfaction  in  working  for  the 
welfare  of  my  children." 

"Very  well,"  says  the  other,  "if  broadening  your  field 


A    MOCK    DEBATE  321 

would  contribute  more  to  the  welfare  of  children,  are  you 
not  in  a  somewhat  similar  position  to  the  business  man 
who  is  considering  an  enlargement  of  his  business?" 

"It  wouldn't  contribute  more,"  declares  Miss  F.  "It 
would  contribute  less.  I  can  certainly  do  better  work  in 
the  first  grade  than  anywhere  else.  Besides  it  isn't  my 
enterprise  as  it  is  his.  Even  if  he  does  not  make  more 
money,  he  has  the  satisfaction  of  working  out  his  own  plans. 
He  takes  pride  in  having  a  bigger  field.  I  am  just  a  teacher. 
I  have  no  interest  in  the  schools  outside  my  own  grade." 

"If  you  take  hold  of  kindergarten  work  or  of  second 
grade  in  the  same  spirit  that  the  ambitious  business  man 
takes  hold  of  a  new  enterprise,  I  am  sure  that  you  would 
contribute  more.  The  work  which  you  have  done  in  first 
grade  would  not  be  lost  to  the  school.  It  would  help  your 
successor  just  as  the  commercial  leader's  knowledge  of  a 
small  business  aids  the  subordinate  who  is  put  in  charge 
of  it.  With  your  experience,  you  would,  I  believe,  do  even 
better  work  in  another  grade,  because  you  would  work 
on  the  new  problems  with  a  zest  which  you  can  hardly  feel 
for  work  which  you  have  done  over  and  over.  You  say 
that  it  is  not  your  enterprise.  That  is  the  great  point; 
it  ought  to  be.  The  education  of  the  children  of  this 
town  is  a  finer  enterprise  than  any  business  man  ever  under- 
took. We  ought  to  think  of  it,  the  whole  thing,  as  our 
enterprise.  Why  should  it  be  less  attractive  for  all  of  us  to 
join  forces  in  such  a  magnificent  undertaking  than  to  work 
on  some  little  thing  that  is  our  own  property?" 

Miss  F.  feels  that  she  is  not  holding  her  own  and,  without 
fully  realizing  it,  she  is  actually  beginning  to  lose  faith  in 
her  own  convictions.  She  clutches  at  a  last  straw.  "I 

E.    T.    PROB.  —  21 


322  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

understand  first-grade  children,"  she  says,  "and  I  like  to 
work  with  them.  I  don't  care  for  older  children  nor  for 
kindergarten  babies." 

"Isn't  that  an  admission  of  weakness?"  asks  the  acting 
superintendent.  "We  aren't  educating  children  for  a  year. 
They  are  very  appealing  as  six-year-olds  but  they  can't 
stay  that  way.  We  have  got  to  concern  ourselves  with  their 
development  into  men  and  women.  Isn't  it  rather  absurd 
to  enjoy  them  at  one  period  of  their  growth  and  to  shut  our 
eyes  to  the  rest  of  their  careers  ?  It  seems  to  me  that  if  we 
are  to  play  an  intelligent  part  in  the  whole  process  of 
development,  we  ought  to  understand  as  much  as  possible 
of  it.  Real  knowledge  of  kindergarten  and  second-grade 
children  is  bound  to  help  a  first-grade  teacher.  I  have  no 
idea  of  removing  you  permanently  from  the  field  which  you 
love.  I  should  not  wish  you  to  lose  all  contact  with  the 
first  grade,  but  I  want  you  to  broaden  your  field  of  experi- 
ence, and  I  want  the  help  of  one  who  knows  first  graders  in 
working  out  the  best  methods  of  dealing  with  them  during 
the  next  year." 

The  debate  started  in  a  spirit  of  fun.  The  teacher  who 
represents  the  superintendent  began  as  an  actor  trying  to 
be  another  person,  but  before  the  discussion  comes  to  an 
end,  he  is  speaking  for  himself.  The  audience  has  forgot 
to  watch  the  proceedings  as  a  play  and  is  seriously  attend- 
ing to  the  thoughts  which  are  sent  back  and  forth. 

"Well,"  says  Mr.  P.,  "what  is  the  verdict?"  "Oh! 
stop  the  play-acting,"  exclaims  Miss  F.  "I'm  going  to 
give  it  a  trial." 

PROBLEM  229.  —  A  high  school  teacher  has  specialized  in  college 
in  the  subject  which  he  teaches  and  has  taken  graduate  courses 


LEARNING   THE    TRADE  32$ 

in  the  same  field.  He  is  scornful  of  pedagogy,  and  thinks  that 
the  teacher's  job  is  to  teach  his  subject.  He  is  annoyed  by  the 
large  number  of  pupils  who  are  stupid  and  lazy  and  know  nothing 
about  a  lesson  which  he  has  just  carefully  explained. 

The  teacher  gets  into  conversation  with  a  colleague.  He 
is  working  for  a  Ph.  D.  and  speaks  of  the  advanced  courses 
which  he  is  planning  to  take  during  the  coming  summer. 
The  other  is  interested  in  the  announcement  of  a  course  in 
vocational  guidance.  Each  man  shows  polite  interest  in 
the  other's  plans  but  secretly  thinks  it  a  mistaken  ambition. 
Our  teacher  says:  "This  high  school  work  is  terrible 
drudgery.  It  is  useless  to  try  to  put  anything  scholarly 
before  these  people.  They  have  no  brains  at  all.  As  soon 
as  I  get  my  degree,  I  am  going  in  for  college  work." 

"High  school  work  drudgery!"  exclaims  the  other. 
"How  can  you  say  so?  I  think  these  youngsters  are  won- 
derfully interesting,  so  full  of  enthusiasm  and  so  ready  to 
respond  to  a  teacher's  lead.  I  haven't  any  pearls  to  throw 
away  but  I  find  it  great  fun  to  feed  growing  minds." 

"Minds  ! "  sneers  the  first  teacher  contemptuously,  "  they 
have  no  minds.  What  in  the  world  do  you  find  interesting 
in  these  raw  cubs?" 

"The  same  interest  that  a  crank  on  horticulture  finds  in 
developing  a  flower,"  the  other  replies.  "  You  or  I  might  not 
find  anything  exciting  in  such  a  project  but  there  is  appar- 
ently a  fascination  for  him  in  studying  soils  and  experi- 
menting with  temperature,  moisture,  sunlight,  etc.  When 
he  succeeds  in  making  a  tiny  improvement  in  the  plant,  he 
is  as  much  elated  as  if  he  were  Columbus.  And  to  work 
with  boys  and  girls  !  —  That's  a  kind  of  horticulture  that  is 
worthy  of  any  amount  of  study." 


324  PROFESSIONAL  GROWTH 

"Just  a  figure  of  speech,''  says  the  scholar.  "Your 
horticulturist  is  a  scientific  worker.  He  has  splendid  books 
to  guide  him,  with  records  of  the  most  painstaking  experi- 
ments. Education  is  nothing  like  that.  Education  is 
imparting  the  inherited  treasures  of  civilization.  There  is 
no  pleasure  in  trying  to  unfold  the  great  masterpieces  of 
literature  to  youngsters  who  are  interested  in  nothing  but 
baseball  and  parties  or  trashy  stories.  If  they  don't  want 
what  I  have  to  give,  my  idea  is  to  work  with  people  who  do." 

"I  believe  there  is  a  real  parallel  in  my  illustration,"  the 
other  teacher  argues.  "If  I  understand  the  horticulturist, 
he  does  not  take  some  particularly  fine  plant  food  and  hunt 
for  a  flower  which  will  thrive  on  it.  He  takes  his  plant  and 
tries  to  find  the  conditions  which  will  make  it  grow  best. 
I  admit  that  education  has  not  yet  acquired  a  solid  basis 
of  scientific  knowledge,  but  that  is  what  is  needed  and  it  is 
coming  fast.  I  wonder  if  you  know  how  much  good  scien- 
tific work  has  beerr  done  in  the  field  of  education  during  the 
past  ten  years." 

"I  didn't  suppose  there  was  anything  worthy  of  the 
name  of  science,"  the  first  teacher  says  skeptically.  The 
other  man  says :  "Wait  a  minute,"  and  leaves  the  room.  In 
a  few  minutes  he  returns  with  a  university  catalog  and  some 
publishers'  circulars.  He  reads  from  a  list  of  courses  offered 
by  the  school  of  education :  "Educational  Psychology,  The 
Psychology  of  Thinking,  The  Psychology  of  Habit,  Mental 
Measurements,  The  Physical  Development  of  the  Child, 
The  Phenomena  of  Adolescence,  Development  of  Moral 
Qualities,  Norms  of  Ability  in  School  Children,  Phi- 
losophy of  Education,  etc."  He  reads  the  titles  of  a 
few  professional  books,  some  of  which  refer  explicitly  to 


LEARNING   THE   TRADE  325 

high  school  problems,  and  then  hands  the  list  to  his  col- 
league. 

"I  don't  believe  there  is  any  real  scholarly  material  in 
that  list,"  our  teacher  objects.  "I  have  read  some  educa- 
tional stuff  and  it  impresses  me  as  superficial  advertising  of 
people  who  want  to  see  themselves  in  print  —  just  a  lot  of 
hazy  generalizations  and  big-sounding  words." 

"You  have  got  hold  of  the  wrong  books,"  says  the  second 
man.  "There  is  still  plenty  of  that  sort  of  thing,  but  more 
and  more  sound  professional  material  is  coming  out,  written 
by  men  of  first-rate  ability  who  are  thorough  students. 
If  you  would  take  the  course  on  Principles  of  Education  by 
Professor  Blank,  or  just  read  one  or  two  of  his  books,  you 
would  get  a  different  idea.  He  changed  my  whole  point  of 
view  and  made  my  work,  which  had  seemed  rather  petty 
and  tiresome,  an  undertaking  which  gets  more  and  more 
interesting." 

The  first  teacher  takes  the  university  catalog  and  a 
couple  of  books  which  the  other  man  urges  him  to  read.  He 
has  no  intention  of  spending  much  time  on  them,  but  he 
turns  over  in  his  mind  some  of  the  ideas  which  his  opponent 
in  the  argument  has  emphasized.  He  dips  into  the  books 
and  quickly  finds  that  they  are  worth  reading,  so  he  pres- 
ently goes  through  them  thoughtfully.  Unconsciously  he 
allows  himself  to  be  influenced  by  the  new  ideas,  and  modifies 
his  methods  of  teaching.  He  finds  himself  considering  the 
possibility  of  taking  Professor  Blank's  course  "just  to  see 
whether  there  is  anything  in  it." 

He  finally  enrolls  in  the  course  and  after  a  time  puts  his 
best  effort  into  it.  He  has  ability,  and  the  recognition  which 
his  written  papers  receive  stimulates  him  further.  He  takes 


326  PROFESSIONAL  GROWTH 

more  courses,  and  presently  asks  for  a  leave  of  absence  in  or- 
der to  complete  the  requirements  for  a  degree  in  education. 
One  day,  toward  the  end  of  his  leave,  he  meets  the  other 
teacher.  "How  goes  it?"  asks  the  latter.  "I'm  working 
day  and  night  on  my  thesis,"  the  first  man  answers.  "I'm 
making  a  study  of  the  abilities  and  interests  of  high  school 
students.  I  hope  to  show  where  the  high  school  is  failing 
to  meet  the  needs  of  adolescents  and  to  point  out  some 
desirable  changes."  "Why,  I  thought  your  dissertation 
was  to  be  on  'The  Use  of  the  Conjunction  in  Milton's 
Minor  Poems.''  "It  was,  but  the  stackrooms  of  the 
libraries  have  been  mercifully  spared.  I  am  writing  for  a 
larger  group  of  readers  and  I  rather  think  that  my  present 
investigation  will  do  more  good." 

PROBLEM  230.  —  The  teachers  of  a  school  system  are  urged  to 
join  the  National  Education  Association.  Few  of  them  respond. 
The  common  attitude  is  expressed  by  the  statement  of  one 
teacher:  "Why  should  I  join  the  association?  I  can't  afford 
to  go  to  the  meetings  and  anyway  I  don't  propose  to  spend  part 
of  my  precious  summer  in  traveling  off  to  some  hot  city,  half- 
way across  the  continent.  I  should  get  nothing  out  of  the 
association  if  I  should  join.  It  would  be  two  dollars  thrown 
away.  Let  the  people  with  the  big  salaries,  who  like  to  go  to 
meetings  and  talk,  have  their  association  if  they  want  it.  It's 
nothing  to  me."  The  president  of  the  local  teachers'  association 
calls  a  meeting  to  discuss  the  matter. 

The  president  calls  the  meeting  to  order  and  reads  a 
circular  letter  from  the  secretary  of  the  N.  E.  A.  outlining 
a  program  and  urging  teachers  to  support  it.  The  question 
is  then  opened  for  discussion.  For  several  minutes  there 
is  no  response.  Everybody  seems  to  be  waiting  for  some- 
one else  to  do  the  talking.  Nervous  people  in  the  front  of  the 
room  turn  their  heads  as  if  to  look  for  a  spokesman.  There 


THE   N.  E.  A.  327 

are  smiles  and  some  mischievous  nudging  of  neighbors  with 
whispered  exhortations  to  rise  and  testify. 

Finally,  the  teacher  whose  point  of  view  has  been  stated 
in  the  problem  rises  and  says  brusquely:  "I  may  as  well 
say  what  we  are  all  thinking.  This  is  an  attempt  to  get 
money  from  teachers  to  support  the  schemes  of  a  few  self- 
constituted  leaders  who  like  to  be  prominent.  I  don't 
see  the  use  of  trying  to  make  a  national  affair  of  school 
work.  State  associations  are  bad  enough.  It  seems  to  me 
that  each  school  system  ought  to  manage  its  own  affairs. 
Local  teachers  have  their  own  interests,  but  what  good 
does  it  do  for  people  from  opposite  corners  of  the  country 
to  get  together  and  talk?  Such  associations  are  usually 
run  by  cliques  and  spend  a  lot  of  time  in  factional  contro- 
versies. Some  people  seem  to  have  a  mania  for  organiza- 
tion. Let  them  organize  if  they  want  to,  but  I  don't  see 
why  teachers  who  are  not  interested  should  pay  for  their 
magnificent  schemes." 

She  is  applauded  vigorously  but  another  teacher  is 
moved  to  say :  "I  didn't  intend  to  speak,  but  I  don't  want 
to  let  Miss  A. 's  statement  stand  as  the  opinion  of  all  teachers. 
I  think  we  ought  to  have  a  national  association  of  teachers 
just  as  other  professions  do,  and  I  think  we  ought  to  become 
members  to  show  our  —  She  hesitates  for  a  word  and 
finally  says  "patriotism"  as  she  drops  into  her  seat. 

As  soon  as  the  laughter  has  subsided,  the  president  asks: 
"How  many  of  you  are  members  of  the  N.  E.  A.  ?"  Four 
hands  are  raised.  "How  many  intend  to  join?"  Three 
or  four  others  go  up.  Then  the  president  says :  "We  have 
wilh  us  the  state  representative  of  the  National  Education 
Association.  She  wishes  to  tell  us  about  its  work  and  I 


328  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

presume  that  she  will  explain  this  campaign  to  increase 
membership." 

The  state  representative  is  an  attractive  woman  who  has 
evidently  had  experience  in  public  speaking.  She  is  very 
earnest  and  she  soon  has  the  attention  of  her  audience. 
"A  few  months  ago,"  she  begins,  "a  vigorous  campaign  was 
waged  all  over  the  country,  in  order  to  secure  public  support 
for  raising  teachers'  salaries.  You  may  have  read  some 
splendid  editorials  on  the  subject  in  your  local  papers  and 
wondered  whether  there  was  a  new  editor.  If  you  had 
made  inquiries,  you  would  have  discovered  that  the  same 
editorials  had  appeared  in  almost  every  paper  in  the  land 
and,  if  you  had  traced  this  educational  effort  to  its  source, 
you  would  have  found  that  it  was  a  part  of  a  campaign 
planned  and  financed  by  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion. The  Association  has  carried  out  several  very  thorough 
salary  investigations,  as  well  as  numerous  other  studies 
which  have  contributed  to  the  improvement  of  American 
schools.  I  am  sure  that  you  have  felt  the  influence  of  them 
here,  although  you  have  probably  not  been  conscious  of  the 
fact. 

The  National  Education  Association  is  now  engaged  in  a 
campaign  which,  if  successful,  will  have  very  far-reaching 
effects.  It  will  put  into  the  classrooms  throughout  the 
country,  in  rural  schools  as  well  as  in  the  cities,  in  the  South 
as  well  as  in  the  North,  trained  teachers  in  place  of  mere 
children  with  only  a  grammar  school  education  or  a  year 
or  two  of  high  school  work,  who  are  now,  by  hundreds,  in 
charge  of  the  destinies  of  the  future  citizens  of  America. 
It  will  bring  into  the  schools  many  children  who,  even  in 
these  days  of  enlightenment,  are  deprived  of  any  decent 


THE   N.  E.  A.  329 

chance  to  make  something  of  themselves.  We  were  shocked 
when  the  army  draft  disclosed  a  vast  amount  of  illiteracy 
among  our  young  men.  Is  not  that  an  evil  which  the  teach- 
ers of  the  country  should  attack  ?  The  National  Education 
Association  is  preparing  to  lead  the  way. 

One  of  your  number  is  in  favor  of  local  endeavor  in  place 
of  nationally  organized  effort.  As  a  nation  we  are  com- 
mitted to  local  initiative,  as  opposed  to  bureaucracy,  but 
great,  widespread  evils  cannot  be  effectively  combated  by 
a  succession  of  unorganized  pin-pricks.  If  a  community 
is  self-centered,  it  may  take  great  satisfaction  in  building 
up  a  fine  system  of  schools  and  congratulate  itself  on  its 
superiority ;  but,  even  from  a  selfish  point  of  view,  it  is  not 
safe  to  blind  one's  eyes  to  conditions  outside  one's  own 
town  or  city  or  state.  This  is  one  nation  and  a  sore  spot 
anywhere  is  bound  to  affect  the  well-being  of  the  whole. 
The  country,  for  its  own  good,  must  learn  to  think  of  edu- 
cation in  national  terms  as  well  as  in  terms  of  individual 
schools  and  school  systems.  I  think,  indeed  I  know,  that 
the  teachers  of  America,  when  they  once  understand  the 
program  which  their  national  association  has  formulated, 
are  going  to  get  behind  it  in  a  spirit  of  true  patriotism. 

Someone  has  spoken  of  the  use  of  large  organizations  in 
the  personal  interest  of  self-seeking  individuals,  of  the 
influence  of  cliques,  and  the  wasting  of  effort  in  factional 
strife.  Did  you  ever  stop  to  think  why  this  is  so?  No? 
Well,  I'll  tell  you.  It  is  because  the  rest  of  us  don't  care 
enough  about  the  real  purposes  of  the  association  to  make 
any  effort  to  help  in  keeping  it  on  its  true  course.  We 
are  too  indolent  or  too  selfish  to  sacrifice  time  or  effort 
or  even  a  few  dollars." 


330  PROFESSIONAL  GROWTH 

"Why  is  it,"  the  speaker  demands,  leaning  forward  tense 
with  emotion,  "that  we  have  bosses,  and  control  of  legis- 
lation by  selfish  interests,  and  little  or  corrupt  men  in 
office?  It  is  because  we  don't  care  enough  to  take  a  hand. 
We  leave  public  affairs  to  those  who  make  a  business  of 
them  for  their  own  profit,  while  we  sit  back  and  criticize. 
If  your  state  association  or  the  national  association  does  not 
please  you,  whose  fault  is  it?"  "Ours,"  someone  says  in 
a  low  tone.  "Yes!"  she  says  instantly.  "It  is  our  fault 
unless  we  get  into  the  game  and  do  our  best  to  set  matters 
right.  If  you  don't  mean  to  play,  stop  finding  fault  with 
the  game  —  but  you  do  mean  to  play  !  Come  on  in ! 

There  is  no  longer  any  excuse  for  control  of  the  National 
Education  Association  by  factions.  The  teachers  of  the 
country  have  the  control  in  their  hands.  The  association 
is  now  managed  by  a  representative  assembly.  Any 
group  of  fifty-one  or  more  members  is  entitled  to  a  delegate, 
with  additional  representation  if  the  group  is  sufficiently 
large.  Your  local  association  should  have  a  delegate. 
You  can't  all  attend  every  meeting  —  although  you  would 
find  it  a  good  investment  to  attend  once  in  a  while  and,  if 
you  decide  to  play  the  game,  you  will  certainly  attend 
meetings  which  are  held  within  reasonable  reach  of  your 
homes,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  a  few  days  of  vacation  — 
but  you  can  always  send  a  delegate.  He  can  act  as  spokes- 
man on  any  matter  in  which  you  are  especially  interested 
and  he  can  bring  back  to  you  reports  of  the  proceedings  and 
a  suggestion  of  the  inspiration  which  such  great  meetings 
sometimes  do  and  always  ought  to  produce. 

Do  I  need  to  say  more?  Just  one  word.  The  combined 
influence  of  the  teachers  of  America,  acting  together  through 


MAKING   TEACHING    RESPECTABLE  331 

a  mouthpiece  responsible  to  them,  can  do  a  splendid  service 
to  the  country.  I  will  not  spoil  it  by  mentioning  the  power 
of  such  an  influence  in  improving  the  teacher's  status 
although  that  is  unquestionable.  Are  we  willing  to  forego 
the  opportunity  to  create  and  maintain  that  influence  ?  " 

There  is  a  torrent  of  applause  and  Miss  A.  jumps  to  her 
feet  and  appeals  for  recognition.  When  the  president  has 
called  the  meeting  to  order  and  accorded  her  the  floor,  the 
teacher  says :  "I'm  glad  I  furnished  the  provocation  for  such 
a  splendid  speech.  I  want  to  thank  the  speaker  personally. 
I  am  going  to  join  the  National  Education  Association 
immediately,  and  I  move,  Mr.  President,  that  a  committee 
be  appointed  to  canvass  the  teachers  for  memberships,  so 
that  we  may  have  our  delegate  at  the  next  meeting." 

PROBLEM  231.  —  A  man,  who  has  been  a  high  school  teacher  for 
ten  years,  finds  it  difficult  to  support  his  wife  and  two  children 
on  his  small  salary.  He  resents  the  attitude  of  the  members 
of  the  board  of  education  in  regard  to  remuneration  of  teachers. 
Few  of  them  have  had  half  as  much  education  as  he,  and  yet 
they  earn  much  larger  incomes  and  evidently  feel  that  they 
are  more  important  members  of  the  community.  He  overhears 
the  remark  of  a  young  lawyer  in  reference  to  himself,  "  Oh ! 
he's  only  a  school  teacher."  He  determines  to  find  out  the 
reason  for  this  attitude  and  the  means  of  changing  it. 

The  teacher  seeks  an  interview  with  the  president  of 
the  board  of  education,  explains  his  financial  difficulties, 
and  appeals  for  an  increase  of  salary.  The  president  listens 
to  his  plea  in  a  tolerant  and  patronizing  manner.  He  says  : 
"I  should  be  glad  to  raise  your  salary  if  the  decision  rested 
with  me,  but  the  fact  is  that  the  people  won't  stand  for  any 
further  increase  in  taxes.  We  board  members  are  con- 
stantly besieged  by  tax-payers  to  keep  the  budget  down." 


332  PROFESSIONAL    GROWTH 

"Well,"  says  the  teacher  in  a  petulant  and  unconvincing 
tone, ." unless  I  can  earn  more  money  I  shall  have  to  quit." 
"  That's  all  right,"  says  the  president.  "  We  won't  stand  in 
the  way  of  your  advancement.  We  shall  be  sorry  to  have 
you  go  but  we  can't  afford  to  pay  you  any  more.  You 
see,  we  can  get  a  younger  man  or  a  woman  in  your  place 
and  save  several  hundred  dollars." 

The  teacher  is  disheartened.  In  spite  of  himself,  he 
feels  a  certain  sense  of  inferiority  before  the  assurance  of 
the  successful  man  of  affairs,  although  his  wounded  pride 
makes  him  retort  angrily.  "What  about  the  pupils?" 
he  asks.  "Don't  you  realize  that  they  will  suffer  if  you 
substitute  an  inexperienced  teacher  for  one  who  has  had 
ten  years  of  experience  and  who  knows  the  school  thor- 
oughly? I  claim  no  superiority  for  men  as  teachers  but  it 
seems  to  me  that  high  school  students  ought  to  have  some 
masculine  influence." 

"I'm  rather  prejudiced  in  favor  of  men  teachers  myself," 
the  president  replies,  "but  I  haven't  any  facts  to  back  up 
my  opinion.  Whenever  teachers  have  left  us,  we  have  made 
a  practice  of  employing  younger  teachers  and,  during  the 
last  few  years,  when  it  has  been  hard  to  get  men  and  other 
expenses  have  increased  so  much,  \ve  have  engaged  women 
teachers  almost  exclusively.  There  may  have  been  some 
loss  but  I  haven't  seen  any  evidence  of  it.  I  can't  ask  the 
people  to  spend  a  lot  more  money  for  a  possible  advantage 
which  is  based  merely  on  opinion." 

The  teacher  sees  that  his  threat  of  withdrawal  has  been 
somewhat  of  a  boomerang  and  he  attempts  to  cover  his 
retreat.  "I  should  certainly  resign,"  he  says,  "if  it  were 
not  for  my  family  responsibilities.  I  have  not  been  able 


MAKING    TEACHING    RESPECTABLE  333 

to  save  anything  and  I  can't  afford  to  take  the  risk  of  giving 
up  my  position  without  having  another,  or  of  starting  in  a 
different  line  of  work  in  which  I  might  have  to  spend  years 
to  establish  myself.  If  I  had  only  realized  that  teaching  is  a 
dead-end  occupation,  I  should  never  have  entered  it.  Now 
it  is  too  late."  His  face  assumes  an  expression  of  complete 
discouragement  and  he  rises  to  depart. 

The  president  rises  also  and  puts  his  hand  on  the  teacher's 
shoulder.  "Young  man,"  he  says,  "stop  pitying  your- 
self. It  won't  get  you  anywhere.  You  are  exactly  in  the 
position  of  the  average  man,  whatever  his  occupation. 
You  haven't  nerve  enough  to  fight  your  way,  and  you  are 
blaming  people  for  not  giving  you  a  good  living  while  you 
occupy  a  safe  berth.  The  world  isn't  run  that  way.  Leav- 
ing out  the  few  who  have  been  boosted  into  soft  jobs  by  the 
influence  of  others,  the  real  successes  in  life  are  made  by 
people  who  stand  on  their  own  feet,  who  realize  that  life 
is  a  struggle  and  have  enough  confidence  in  themselves  to 
take  the  risks  involved  in  carving  out  a  career. 

I  had  pretty  rough  sledding  before  I  got  a  secure  foot- 
hold. Several  times  I  had  to  dance  on  the  ragged  edge. 
If  I  had  not  taken  risks,  I  should  probably  be  a  clerk  now 
on  maybe  thirty  dollars  a  week,  but  I  was  bound  to  succeed 
and,  when  I  saw  a  good  opening  for  starting  a  business  of 
my  own,  I  borrowed  money  and  went  at  it.  If  I  had  lost, 
I  should  have  been  bankrupt  and  the  wife  would  have  had 
to  take  in  washing.  You  see  I  had  to  succeed.  I  never 
let  the  other  thought  stay  in  my  mind.  I  knew  that  I 
had  something  to  sell  that  people  would  want  if  I  could  make 
them  understand  it,  so  I  studied  and  planned  and  worked 
until  I  had  created  a  market.  If  people  really  want  what 


334  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

you  have  to  sell,  they  will  pay  for  it,  whether  it  is  asbestos 
shingles  or  education.  There  is  no  use  in  scolding  them. 
They've  got  to  be  shown." 

The  teacher  ponders  the  business  man's  advice.  He 
finds  much  to  confirm  it.  The  characterization  of  himself, 
in  the  attitude  of  playing  safe  and  appealing  to  sympathy 
for  bettering  his  condition,  has  made  him  wince.  He 
squares  his  shoulders  and  prepares  to  face  the  issue.  "To 
create  a  market,"  he  says  to  himself,  "that  is  the  problem. 
We  have  been  railing  at  the  stupidity  of  the  public  in  fail- 
ing to  recognize  the  necessity  of  having  strong  teachers  and 
a  certain  number  of  men  teachers.  If  people  become  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity,  they  will  demand  such  teachers 
whatever  the  cost.  How  can  they  be  convinced?" 

His  mind  goes  back  to  the  president's  remark  that,  while 
there  may  have  been  some  loss  in  the  replacement  of  ex- 
perienced teachers  by  beginners  and  the  reduction  of  the 
number  of  male  teachers  almost  to  the  vanishing  point, 
he  has  seen  no  indications  of  such  loss.  Can  the  loss  be 
made  so  clear  to  the  tax-payer  that  he  will  insist  that  the 
board  of  education  hold  its  strong  teachers,  even  if  he  retains 
his  traditional  right  to  scold  about  the  tax-bills  ? 

The  teacher  studies  this  problem,  first  making  a  list  of 
ah1  the  changes  which  have  been  made  in  the  high  school 
faculty  during  the  past  few  years  and  trying  to  collect 
evidence  of  the  effect  of  these  changes.  To  his  surprise, 
he  finds  very  little  that  is  tangible.  He  is  perfectly  sure 
that  there  must  have  been  losses  but  it  seems  difficult  to 
prove  it.  There  are  one  or  two  cases  of  notable  failure  in 
discipline  by  young  teachers  but  these  are  offset  by  some 
conspicuous  examples  of  success.  "What  we  need  is  a 


MAKING   TEACHING   RESPECTABLE  335 

cost  accounting  system,"  he  thinks.  "If  we  could  only 
show  that  increased  expenditure  produces  results  in  terms 
of  knowledge  and  character,  people  would  be  willing  to 
invest  in  education  just  as  stockholders  support  a  new  out- 
lay when  they  see  a  prospect  of  increased  dividends.  Small 
chance  of  that !  You  can't  measure  the  results  of  education 
in  any  definite  way.  You  can't  tell  how  a  boy  or  girl  is 
going  to  turn  out  until  long  after  he  has  left  school,  and 
then  you  don't  know  whether  he  has  succeeded  because  of 
his  education  or  in  spite  of  it." 

He  runs  over  his  own  experience  and  has  to  admit  that, 
while  he  learned  a  great  deal  during  the  first  year  or  two, 
his  work  was  probably  about  as  effective  five  years  ago  as  it 
is  now.  "No  wonder,"  he  thinks,  "that  people  are  not 
demanding  that  my  pay  be  raised  for  fear  of  outside  com- 
petition for  my  services.  I  shall  have  to  make  my  work 
stand  out.  We  tell  the  youngster,  who  is  starting  in  as  an 
office  boy,  to  make  himself  indispensable,  but  how  can  I 
make  myself  indispensable  to  tax-payers  whom  I  never 
see?" 

This  idea  of  lack  of  contact  between  teachers  and  the 
people  who  support  the  schools  is  turned  over  frequently 
in  the  teacher's  mind.  He  becomes  interested  in  analyzing 
the  opportunities  for  becoming  widely  known.  He  thinks 
of  individuals  who  are  prominent  in  the  town.  There  are 
the  members  of  the  municipal  government,  of  the  board 
of  education,  officers  in  various  organizations,  and  a  few 
who,  while  occupying  no  office,  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  papers,  are  always  appointed  on  committees  to  deal 
with  special  community  enterprises,  and  are  frequently 
called  upon  to  speak  at  public  meetings.  Some  of  these 


336  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

people  are  not  particularly  able.  There  are  some  small 
tradesmen  and  a  few  artisans.  Some  have  never  had  even 
a  grammar  school  education  and  murder  the  king's  English. 
But  there  is  something  interesting  about  the  personality 
of  every  one. 

He  becomes  absorbed  in  observing  these  men  and  comes 
to  envy  them  a  common  characteristic  which  he  lacks. 
They  are  almost  invariably  "good  mixers"  and  they  make  a 
business  of  mixing.  He  himself  is  rather  diffident  and 
feels  ill  at  ease  and  at  a  loss  for  conversational  material 
when  he  finds  himself  in  a  heterogeneous  group  although 
he  can  talk  by  the  hour  with  another  teacher.  He  wonders 
whether  there  is  anything  peculiar  about  teaching  which 
unfits  a  person  for  being  a  man  among  men,  or  is  it  that 
teaching  attracts  only  the  type  of  man  who  does  not  enjoy 
general  social  intercourse?  If  neither  of  these  supposi- 
tions is  true,  why  is  there  no  teacher  among  the  real  leaders 
in  community  affairs? 

He  knows  from  his  own  experience  that  it  is  very  easy  for 
a  teacher  to  become  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  community. 
His  work  is  absorbing,  taking  many  of  his  evenings.  It 
does  not  bring  him  into  contact  with  men  outside  the  pro- 
fession. He  has  little  occasion  to  discuss  the  subjects  which 
other  men  are  apt  to  talk  about  when  they  get  together. 
He  realizes  that  it  would  improve  the  standing  of  teachers 
if  they  were  more  active  in  community  affairs  and  if  they 
had  a  wider  circle  of  friends.  He  wonders  whether  teachers 
ought  to  take  the  initiative  in  this,  and  whether  a  person 
like  himself  could  learn  to  be  more  sociable. 

The  teacher  has  heard  reports  of  the  enormous  fees  which 
prominent  lawyers  and  specialists  in  other  fields  receive. 


MAKING   TEACHING   RESPECTABLE  337 

Outward  evidences  indicate  that  these  men  have  become 
rich.  He  sometimes  speaks  contemptuously  of  people  who 
will  pay  such  exorbitant  charges,  and  yet  apparently  there 
is  no  lack  of  competition  for  their  services.  Discussion 
of  this  subject  and  reflection  upon  it  convince  him  that 
these  specialists  have  mastered  a  field  in  which  people  have 
urgent  need  of  advice.  They  will  pay  high  fees  because 
they  have  confidence  that  they  will  get  expert  service  which 
others  cannot  render.  He  wonders  if  education  can  ever 
be  developed  to  such  a  degree,  and  dreams  of  the  educational 
specialist  who  is  able  to  diagnose  individual  cases  and  pre- 
scribe for  children  as  skillfully  as  the  oculist  deals  with 
defective  vision  or  the  consulting  engineer  directs  the 
solution  of  a  problem  of  water  supply. 

All  this  reflection  upon  the  puzzle  has  suggested  nothing 
very  definite  in  the  way  of  a  solution,  but  it  has  impressed 
the  teacher  with  the  magnitude  of  the  problem  and  made 
him  more  interested  in  the  causes  of  his  unsatisfactory 
status  and  less  inclined  to  blame  other  people.  He  is 
influenced  still  by  the  president's  advice  and  is  determined 
to  make  a  success  of  his  life. 

A  conversation  with  a  man  who  has  the  reputation  of 
being  a  genius  in  remembering  people's  names,  in  which  the 
latter  declares  that  it  is  simply  a  matter  cf  attention,  that 
almost  anyone  can  do  the  trick  if  he  makes  a  business  of  it, 
leads  the  teacher  to  make  a  determined  effort  to  develop 
some  social  ability.  He  joins  the  Improvement  Association 
in  his  own  ward  and  attends  a  dinner  of  his  political  party. 
He  forces  himself  to  take  the  initiative  in  speaking  to  sev- 
eral men,  and  exerts  himself  to  carry  on  conversations. 
He  has  one  or  two  opportunities  to  correct  some  false  im- 

E.    I.    PROB. 22 


338  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

pressions  about  the  schools,  but  he  takes  pains  to  show  an 
interest  in  subjects  introduced  by  others.  Before  going  to 
meetings,  he  prepares  himself  by  rehearsing  topics  of  con- 
versation and  even  memorizes  some  humorous  stories  — 
heretofore  he  has  been  in  the  habit  of  declaring  that  he 
could  never  remember  a  joke.  All  this  is  at  first  very 
distasteful  but  it  gradually  becomes  easier  and  even  enjoy- 
able. He  makes  many  acquaintances  and  begins  to  take 
satisfaction  in  the  number  of  people  who  nod  and  smile, 
when  he  meets  them  on  the  street,  or  pass  a  familiar  greeting 
at  the  post  office  or  in  the  bank  lobby.  When  he  is  made 
chairman  of  a  committee  of  the  Improvement  Association, 
he  feels  that  he  is  really  on  his  way. 

The  teacher's  dream  of  an  educational  specialist,  able 
to  diagnose  and  prescribe  accurately  for  educational  ills, 
has  a  permanent  effect  upon  his  mind.  He  recognizes  it  as 
a  dream,  yet  it  comes  to  be  a  dominating  idea.  The  first 
practical  effect  is  a  decision  to  volunteer  as  Scout  Master 
of  a  troop  of  Boy  Scouts  connected  with  one  of  the  churches. 
This  position  has  already  been  offered  to  several  other  teach- 
ers who  have  felt  that  they  could  not  afford  the  time. 
Our  teacher  is  influenced  in  his  decision  by  recognizing  an 
opportunity  to  study  boys.  The  educational  specialist  of 
his  vision  understands  children  thoroughly,  their  interests, 
their  motives,  the  stimuli  which  will  bring  out  the  best 
that  is  in  them.  He  finds  in  this  new  work  a  really  fascinat- 
ing occupation.  He  realizes  very  quickly  how  little  he 
has  understood  boys  as  individuals,  and  he  has  some  rather 
discouraging  experiences  at  first,  but  his  attitude  of  the 
student,  observing  human  phenomena  and  experimenting 
in  order  to  learn  the  truth,  helps  him  to  remain  cool  when 


AN    EDUCATIONAL    SPECIALIST  339 

boys  are  pesky  and  to  be  patient  with  refractory  individuals. 
Gradually  he  acquires  a  reputation  as  somewhat  of  an 
authority  on  boys.  Parents  consult  him  and  his  first 
published  article  is  on  "Some  Traits  of  Boy  Nature." 
A  new  sense  of  achievement  brings  exhilaration  and  a  passion 
for  work. 

The  need  of  some  means  of  measuring  the  effect  of  teach- 
ing is  another  problem  which  occupies  the  teacher's  mind. 
His  first  attempt  is  to  compare  the  marks  of  two  successive 
classes,  using  the  same  examination  paper.  The  results 
are  not  very  convincing  and  he  is  still  puzzling  over  the 
matter  when  he  accidentally  learns  that  others  have  been 
working  on  the  same  problem  and  that  already  a  good  deal 
of  experimenting  has  been  done  with  standard  tests.  He 
reads  all  the  articles  which  he  is  able  to  find  on  the  subject 
and  corresponds  with  one  or  two  of  the  authors.  The 
result  is  a  conviction  that  the  problem  is  much  more  com- 
plicated than  he  had  supposed  and  that  his  own  tests  cannot 
give  any  reliable  information,  because  they  involve  so  many 
uncertain  factors,  such  as  the  relative  ability  of  the  two 
classes  tested  and  variability  in  judgment  of  the  teacher  who 
marks  the  papers.  He  sees  a  lifetime  of  work  for  the  edu- 
cational specialist. 

The  teacher  consults  a  professor  at  one  of  the  universities. 
He  tells  about  his  desire  to  study  education  scientifically, 
shows  his  article  on  Boy  Nature,  and  explains  the  work 
which  he  has  been  doing  and  some  of  the  questions  which 
baffle  him.  The  professor  describes  courses  which  would  be 
of  value  and  says  that,  in  order  to  get  very  far,  the  teacher 
would  need  to  spend  at  least  two  years  in  study.  The 
teacher  thinks  that  his  financial  problems  would  probably 


340  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

make  this  impossible,  and  the  professor  suggests  the 
possibility  of  a  fellowship  amounting  to  a  few  hundred 
dollars. 

The  teacher  has  a  talk  with  his  wife  and  then  goes  to  the 
president  of  the  board  of  education.  He  explains  his 
ambition  and  then  asks:  "Will  the  board  give  me  a  leave 
of  absence?"  Instead  of  replying,  the  president  puts  a 
question  of  his  own.  "How  are  you  going  to  finance  your 
scheme?"  "Borrow  the  money,"  the  teacher  replies. 

"Have  you  found  anyone  to  lend  it  to  you?" 

"Not  yet,  but  I  hope  that  I  can  find  some  people  who  have 
enough  confidence  in  me  to  take  a  chance  on  my  making 
good." 

"Suppose  the  board  refuses  a  leave  of  absence,"  the 
president  says  sharply.  "Then,"  replies  the  teacher  with 
his  chin  up,  "I  shall  resign.  Here  is  a  chance  for  a  life 
work  which  needs  to  be  done  and  which  I  am  sure  I  can  do. 
I'm  going  to  do  it." 

"You  are  taking  a  big  risk,"  the  president  suggests. 
"Right,"  says  the  teacher,  "the  same  risk  that  you  took 
when  you  started  your  business." 

The  president  slaps  him  on  the  back.  "Good  for  you," 
he  says,  "I  had  a  notion  that  you  had  the  stuff  in  you.  I 
think  I  can  answer  for  the  board  of  education."  As  the 
teacher  offers  his  hand  and  expresses  his  thanks,  the 
older  man  adds:  "When  you  go  to  see  your  friends  about 
that  loan,  tell  them  that  I  am  betting  a  thousand  dollars 
on  you." 

During  the  teacher's  residence  at  the  university,  he 
receives  several  offers  of  positions  at  considerably  better 
salaries  than  he  has  earned.  One  of  them,  a  principalship, 


AN   EDUCATIONAL   SPECIALIST  341 

pays  a  sum  which  would  have  satisfied  him  before  he  started 
on  his  new  career.  It  is  a  temptation  to  avoid  incurring 
further  financial  obligations,  but  he  has  the  feeling  that 
his  backers  might  think  him  a  quitter  and  he  decides  to 
stick  to  his  purpose. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  second  year,  when  the  professor 
under  whom  he  has  done  his  most  important  work  is  con- 
gratulating him  upon  his  doctor's  dissertation  and  assuring 
him  that  its  publication  will  mark  a  real  step  forward  in 
scientific  knowledge  of  education,  the  teacher  refers  to  his 
return  to  public  school  work.  The  professor  says:  "You 
can  make  much  more  money  in  private  practice.  When 
your  book  is  published  you  will  be  recognized  as  an  authority 
in  the  special  field  which  you  have  been  studying.  You 
are  one  of  a  very  few  who  are  able  to  examine  an  unusual 
child  with  any  degree  of  precision  and  prescribe  suitable 
treatment  for  him.  There  are  many  people  who  are  deeply 
concerned  about  children  who  are  not  developing  normally. 
If  such  people  discover  that  they  can  get  expert  advice, 
not  mere  guessing,  they  will  crowd  your  office.  If  you 
continue  to  work  as  you  have  been  doing,  you  could,  in 
time,  build  up  a  select  clientele  and  make  a  large  income." 
'I  have  thought  of  that,"  the  teacher  replies.  "I 
think  it  could  be  done,  but  I  have  a  sort  of  prejudice  against 
using  my  special  knowledge  as  a  monopoly  for  the  benefit  of 
the  wealthy  and  primarily  for  my  own  profit.  It  has  always 
seemed  to  me  somewhat  of  a  scandal  that  the  legal  pro- 
fession which  theoretically  is  devoted  to  justice  and  right 
should  apparently  determine  its  charges  on  the  basis  of 
'what  the  traffic  will  bear.'  I  have  taken  pride  in  the 
thought  that  teaching  is  a  public  service  and  I  think  that  I 


342  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

shall  be  happier  in  making  whatever  contribution  I  can  to 
public  education." 

Shortly  before  the  time  of  the  teacher's  return  to  work  in 
the  local  schools,  a  proposition  is  submitted  to  the  board 
of  education,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  superintendent, 
for  the  employment  of  the  former  teacher  as  assistant 
superintendent.  It  is  explained  that  his  duties  will  be  to 
make  scientific  studies  of  all  sorts  of  school  problems,  to 
examine  and  recommend  treatment  for  exceptional  children, 
and  to  train  teachers  in  similar  work.  There  is  strong 
opposition  to  the  plan.  A  few  members  of  the  board 
support  it  but  the  majority  are  opposed  to  the  creation  of 
a  new  position.  One  of  the  newspapers  commends  the 
opponents  of  the  proposition  for  refusing  to  waste  the 
people's  money  on  fads.  The  editor  writes,  with  the 
positiveness  of  the  self-appointed  seer,  on  the  necessity  of 
resisting  all  such  fantastic  departures  from  the  traditional 
training  in  fundamentals  which  has  produced  our  great 
men. 

A  little  later,  the  teacher  receives  from  another  school 
system  an  offer  of  a  position  similar  to  the  one  proposed. 
His  impulse  is  to  accept,  but  he  has  set  his  heart  on  the 
creation  of  a  market  for  expert  educational  service  in  his 
own  community.  Finally  a  compromise  is  effected  by  which 
the  teacher  is  to  return  to  his  position  in  the  high  school. 
but  is  to  have  a  lighter  program  of  teaching  than  is  assigned 
generally,  in  order  that  he  may  give  a  part  of  his  time  to 
intensive  study  of  school  problems. 

The  matter  is  settled  shortly  before  the  end  of  the  school 
year  and  the  teacher  secures  permission  to  give  some  tests 
which  will  enable  him  to  make  comparisons  at  the  end  of  the 


AN   EDUCATIONAL   SPECIALIST  343 

following  year.  He  uses  standard  tests  of  intelligence  and 
of  achievement  in  English,  mathematics,  and  Latin,  apply- 
ing them  to  all  the  pupils  in  the  freshman  class  of  the  high 
school.  He  also  measures  the  intelligence  of  eighth-grade 
pupils  who  will  form  the  new  freshman  class  and  consults 
with  them  and,  in  some  cases,  with  their  parents,  in  regard 
to  their  choice  of  courses  and  subjects.  Some  of  the  parents 
heed  his  advice  and  others  insist  on  having  their  children 
take  the  course  which  is  generally  regarded  as  more  high- 
toned  than  the  alternatives. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  new  year,  he  gives  tests  in  several 
subjects  to  all  the  freshmen  and,  on  the  basis  of  the  results 
of  these  tests  and  his  intelligence  measures,  advises  the 
principal  in  regard  to  the  best  grouping  of  the  pupils  in 
recitation  sections.  In  his  own  classes,  he  frequently  divides 
the  students  into  groups,  varying  the  work  in  accordance 
with  different  capacities.  He  gives  tests  and  succeeds  in 
interesting  pupils  in  measuring  their  own  progress. 

At  his  own  request,  he  is  made  " faculty  adviser"  of  the 
freshman  boys.  He  studies  them  individually  and  becomes 
very  well  acquainted  with  them.  He  shows  an  interest  in 
their  hobbies  and  develops  a  relationship  which  leads  boys 
to  confide  in  him  and  to  ask  his  advice.  In  a  few  cases  of 
serious  misbehavior  or  moral  delinquency  which  would 
naturally  lead  to  suspension  or  expulsion,  he  offers  to  be 
responsible  for  the  boys  and,  with  one  exception,  succeeds 
in  using  the  experience  as  a  means  of  strengthening  the 
character  of  the  offender.  He  meets  the  boys  outside  the 
classroom  in  athletics,  occasional  hikes,  and  at  club  meetings. 
For  lack  of  time,  he  is  obliged  to  decline  persistent  appeals 
for  similar  work  with  older  boys. 


344  PROFESSIONAL    GROWTH 

At  the  end  of  the  year,  he  again  measures  the  achievements 
of  the  freshmen,  using  tests  which  have  been  scientifically 
prepared  so  as  to  be  of  exactly  the  same  difficulty  as  those 
used  at  the  beginning.  He  analyzes  the  results  and  pre- 
pares simple  charts  showing  the  facts  in  a  striking  form. 
He  also  studies  the  number  of  withdrawals  from  the  fresh- 
man class  in  comparison  with  previous  years  and  compares 
the  percentages  of  failure  in  the  various  recitation  sections. 
With  the  help  of  these  charts  he  is  able  to  convince  first 
the  high  school  faculty  and  then  the  members  of  the  board 
of  education  of  these  facts  : 

1.  Withdrawals    from    the   freshman   class   have  been 
reduced  from  an  average  of  35  per  cent  during  the  previous 
three  years  to  16  per  cent,  although  withdrawals  from  other 
classes  have  been  practically  the  same  as  in  other  years. 

2.  The  reduction  in  withdrawals  has  been  greater  for 
freshman  boys  than  for  girls. 

3.  The  average  rating  in  the  subjects  tested  is,  on  the 
whole,  higher  than  at  the  end  of  the  previous  year.     Where 
new    teachers    have    succeeded    experienced    teachers    the 
results  are  poorer.     Where  classes  have  been  taught  by  the 
same  teachers  for  the  two  successive  years,   the  average 
ratings  in  the  two  tests  are  about  the  same,  the  differences 
corresponding  closely  to  the  differences  in  pupil  ability  as 
shown  by  the  intelligence  tests.     The  mathematics  classes 
taught  by  the  man  who  has  qualified  as  an  expert  show 
a  much  higher  average  achievement  than  that  displayed 
by  corresponding  classes  in  the  tests  of  the  preceding  June. 

4.  Progress  during  the  year  :n   the  various  recitation 
sections  varies  widely.     When  children  of  nearly  the  same 
degree  of  intelligence  are  compared,  the  variation  is  striking. 


TESTS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT  345 

5.  With  one  or  two  exceptions,  the  progress  is  distinctly 
greater  in  the  classes  taught  by  experienced  teachers  than  in 
those   of   beginners.     The   class   taught   by   one   English 
teacher  who  is  known  by  her  associates  to  be  a  superior 
teacher  has  gone  far  ahead  of  the  others  although  the 
average  intelligence  of  her  group  is  not  the  highest.     There 
are  fewer  cases  of  little  or  no  progress  in  the  classes  taught 
by  the  investigator  than  in  any  of  the  others.     There  are 
also  in  his  classes  more  cases  of  striking  progress  by  the 
ablest  pupils.     In  other  classes,  some  students  who  rank 
highest  in  intelligence  have  advanced  comparatively  little 
in  power  to  use  English  or  in  ability  to  analyze  mathe- 
matical problems. 

6.  Teachers'  marks  do  not  correspond  closely  with  the 
ratings  in  the  standard  tests.     There  is  a  general  agree- 
ment but  many  exceptions.     Teachers'  marks  correspond 
fairly  well  with  measures  of  native  ability  but  are  very 
inconsistent    with    measures    of    progress.     Some    pupils 
who  have  failed,  according  to  the  judgment  of  teachers, 
have  made  excellent  progress  in  terms  of  their  own  initial 
achievements. 

7.  On  the  whole,  the  classes  which  are  most  homogeneous 
from  the  standpoint  of  intelligence  have  had  fewest  failures. 
Only  one  of  the  pupils  who  insisted  on  taking  the  college 
preparatory  course,  against  the  advice  of  our  teacher,  has 
passed  in  Latin,  and  this  individual  has  been  advised  by 
his  teacher  not  to  continue  the  subject. 

The  superintendent  renews  his  recommendation  for  the 
appointment  of  an  assistant  to  deal  with  research.  This 
time  the  board  is  sympathetic  but  the  teacher  suggests 
that,  before  action  is  taken,  an  effort  be  made  to  convince 


346  PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH 

the  public  of  the  need  of  such  work.  With  this  purpose  in 
view,  a  report  of  the  year's  experiment,  illustrated  by  re- 
productions of  the  charts,  is  printed  for  general  circulation. 
Newspaper  comment  is  secured  and  opportunities  are  sought 
for  discussion  of  the  subject  at  various  meetings.  The 
result  is  that  the  editor  who  had,  the  year  before,  called  for 
resistance  to  fads,  chides  the  board  for  false  economy  in 
employing  inexperienced  teachers,  and  declares  that  investi- 
gations like  the  one  applied  to  the  freshman  class  ought  to 
be  carried  out  in  every  department  of  the  school  system. 
"The  public  demands  results,"  he  writes.  "It  does  not 
expect  the  board  to  sacrifice  efficiency  for  the  sake  of  a 
few  dollars.  It  wants  the  best  for  its  children  and  it 
is  willing  to  pay  whatever  is  necessary  to  get  results." 

At  the  same  meeting  at  which  the  teacher  is  elected 
assistant  superintendent,  a  communication  from  a  prom- 
inent citizen  is  read,  in  which  the  teacher's  work  with  the 
freshman  boys  is  referred  to  in  enthusiastic  terms  and 
appeal  is  made  for  the  employment  of  more  men  in  the 
high  school. 

Soon  after  the  meeting,  one  of  the  teachers  congratulates 
the  new  appointee  somewhat  wistfully  upon  his  promotion. 
"Oh!  Your  turn  will  come  next,"  the  other  replies  en- 
couragingly. "No  such  luck!"  exclaims  the  first  man. 
"  There  are  mighty  few  such  positions  and,  of  course,  I 
haven't  your  ability  anyway.  My  ambition  doesn't  run 
so  high,  but  I  would  like  to  earn  a  respectable  living." 

"Let  me  tell  you  my  story,"  says  the  new  assistant 
superintendent.  He  explains  his  own  disheartened  state 
after  ten  years  of  teaching  and  the  incidents  which  started 
him  on  his  new  course.  "I  am  confident,"  he  declares, 


PROFESSIONAL   GROWTH  347 

"that  there  is  a  career  in  education  for  any  man  who  sees 
the  possibilities  in  it  and  who  has  ability  enough  to  have 
any  right  to  be  intrusted  with  the  education  of  children. 
The  idea  that  a  man  cannot  amount  to  anything  in  school 
work  unless  he  becomes  a  principal  or  superintendent  is 
all  wrong.  There  is  room  for  the  finest  kind  of  professional 
work  in  the  classroom.  There  are  problems  there  that  are 
worthy  of  the  best  effort  of  any  man  or  woman,  no  matter 
how  able ;  and  when  we  learn  to  take  our  work  in  a  truly 
professional  way ;  when  we  realize  that  it  is  the  biggest, 
finest  job  in  the  world,  that  it  needs  just  as  careful,  exact 
study  as  any  of  the  other  professions ;  when  we  fit  ourselves 
to  do  our  work  scientifically  and  demonstrate  that  we  can 
bring  about  important  and  definite  changes  in  ability  and 
character  of  boys  and  girls ;  then  people  will  get  a  new  idea 
of  education  and  teachers  will  win  the  respect  and  the  re- 
muneration which  professional  teachers  deserve." 

PRINCIPLES  IN  REGARD  TO  PROFESSIONAL  GROWTH 

1.  The  work  of  teaching  should  be  regarded  as  a  great  pro- 
fession, worthy  of  the  best  ability  and  of  the  most  thorough 
study. 

2.  Education  is  still  in  a  relatively  crude  stage  of  develop- 
ment in  comparison  with  other  professions.     Much  of  our  educa- 
tional material  and  methods  is  based  upon  opinion  rather  than 
knowledge.     Aims  are  not  all  in  accord  with  scientific  fact. 
The  professional  teacher  will  strive  to  keep  abreast  of  new  dis- 
coveries in  the  field  and  to  test  his  methods  and  ideas. 

3.  The  professional  teacher  will  have  a  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion.    He  will  not  limit  his  interest  to  a  small  field. 

4.  The  professional  teacher  will  keep  an   open   mind,    will 
avoid  prejudice,  will  welcome  new  ideas. 

5.  The  professional  teacher  will  learn  from  others,  through 
books,  meetings,  observation,  and  study  under  leaders. 


348  PROFESSIONAL    GROWTH 

6.  The  professional  teacher  will  welcome  advice  and  criticism 
and  will  be  critical  of  his  own  work. 

7.  The  professional  teacher  will  feel  a  responsibility  for  the 
advancement  of  the  profession.     He  will  take  part  in  profes- 
sional associations,  report  his  own  experiments  in  meetings  or 
in  publications. 

8.  A  teacher  should  set  apart  a  definite  time  for  professional 
study. 

9.  The  professional  teacher  will  be  scientific.     He  will  not 
hold  fast  to  old  methods,  merely  because  he  is  used  to  them. 
Neither  will  he  adopt  new  methods  merely  because  they  are  the 
fashion.     He  will  constantly  try  to  get  new  light  on  his  problems, 
to  improve  his  work.     He  will  experiment  and  study  results 
carefully. 

10.  The  professional  teacher  will  regard  professional  training 
and  growth  as  absolutely  necessary  —  as  necessary  to  him  as 
are  tools  to  the  artisan.     Such  training  will  come  first,  not  last, 
in  his  program. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  THE  READER  TO  SOLVE 

PROBLEM  232.  —  A  teacher  of  very  long  experience  feels  that 
she  is  getting  "  stale."  The  work  does  not  interest  her  as  much 
as  formerly.  She  knows  the  books  by  heart.  She  is  annoyed  by 
the  frequent  suggestions  of  new  methods  made  by  the  principal 
and  teachers  who  have  had  less  experience  than  she.  She  used 
to  be  regarded  as  an  exceptionally  strong  teacher,  and  was  always 
proud  of  her  results. 

PROBLEM  233.  —  A  teacher,  on  graduation  from  normal  school, 
begins  work  in  a  school  providing  very  little  supervision.  The 
principal  has  a  superficial  view  of  education,  has  to  spend  most 
of  his  time  in  teaching,  and,  aside  from  that,  devotes  himself  to 
routine.  The  teacher  tries  to  put  into  practice  the  principles 
studied  at  normal  school  but  finds  that  they  do  not  seem  to 
work.  Other  teachers  tell  her  that  they  are  not  practical.  She 
gradually  adopts  routine  methods  of  little  educational  value  but 
easy  to  use  and  making  control  of  the  class  simpler.  After 
two  years  these  methods  have  become  habitual.  She  does  no 
professional  reading  except  in  magazines  giving  superficial,  rule- 


PROFESSIONAL    GROWTH  349 

of-thumb  methods  and  devices.  A  number  of  superintendents, 
to  whom  she  has  been  recommended  by  the  normal  school, 
visit  her  but  stay  only  a  little  while  and  go  away  without  offering 
her  a  position.  She  realizes  that  they  are  not  satisfied  and  won- 
ders why. 

PROBLEM  234.  —  A  teacher  of  six  or  eight  years  of  experience 
is  skillful  in  dealing  with  children  and  gets  good  results  in  or- 
dinary school  work.  She  does  some  professional  reading  but 
finds  some  of  the  books,  which  are  highly  recommended,  hard 
to  understand.  They  seem  theoretical,  offering  little  that  she 
can  apply  to  her  work.  She  feels  that  she  ought  to  gain  a 
deeper  insight  into  the  problems  of  education,  and  has  often 
thought  that  she  would  like  to  take  some  professional  courses, 
but  there  is  so  much  else  to  be  done  that  she  puts  it  off  from 
year  to  year. 

PROBLEM  235.  —  A  teacher  who  is  a  candidate  for  a  position  is 
asked  by  the  superintendent  to  state  the  chief  problems  which 
she  has  encountered.  She  does  not  understand  what  he  means, 
is  not  aware  that  she  has  any  problems,  says  that  she  never  had 
any  trouble.  Oddly  enough,  the  superintendent  does  not  seem 
to  regard  this  uneventful  career  as  a  sign  of  merit. 

PROBLEM  236.  —  A  teacher  decides  to  take  a  professional  course, 
but  has  difficulty  in  deciding  what  to  take.  Those  which  are 
most  valuable  are  available  for  him  only  in  the  summer  and 
he  does  not  wish  to  spend  the  summer  in  study. 

PROBLEM  237.  —  A  grade  teacher  is  ambitious  and  decides  to 
specialize  in  some  single  subject.  A  friend  has  done  this  and 
earns  considerably  more  money  than  she.  She  has  some  doubt 
whether  she  will  like  it. 

PROBLEM  238.  —  A  teacher  is  anxious  to  know  whers  her  weak- 
nesses lie,  so  that  she  may  improve  her  work. 

PROBLEM  239.  —  A  teacher  is  expected  to  spend  a  day  each 
year  in  visiting  schools.  She  has  not  received  much  benefit  from 
previous  visits  and  would  prefer  not  to  go.  The  principal  agrees 
to  excuse  her  if  she  is  convinced  that  she  can  learn  nothing  from 


350  PROFESSIONAL    GROWTH 

the  work  of  other  teachers  whom  she  might  visit,  but  advises 
her  to  think  the  matter  over  and  see  if  she  cannot  plan  her  day 
so  as  to  gain  something  of  benefit  to  the  school. 

PROBLEM  240.  —  A  girl  goes  to  normal  school  because  she 
thinks  teaching  will  be  agreeable  work.  The  long  vacations 
appeal  to  her.  On  taking  a  position,  she  finds  the  work  pleasant 
enough,  but  has  no  desire  to  remain  in  it  long.  As  she  expects 
to  be  married  in  a  few  years,  she  sees  no  need  of  doing  any  more 
studying.  In  a  chance  conversation,  someone  expresses  the 
opinion  that  teachers,  as  public  servants,  are  under  obligation 
to  make  themselves  as  efficient  as  possible,  regardless  of  the  time 
during  which  they  intend  to  teach. 

PROBLEM  241.  —  A  teacher  undertakes  much  work  in  addition 
to  his  regular  duties  in  order  to  add  to  his  income,  teaching  in 
the  evening  school,  and  taking  a  business  position  during  the 
summer.  He  has  no  time  for  studying,  arranges  his  work 
so  that  he  can  get  through  with  his  necessary  duties,  such  as 
marking  papers,  in  a  minimum  of  time.  A  superintendent  tells 
him  that  he  is  not  investing  his  time  wisely. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Engelhardt,  N.,  The  Classroom  Teacher,  Chapter 

XVI. 

Miller,  I.  E.,  Education  for  the  Needs  of  Life,  Chapter  VI. 
Sears,  J.    B.,  Classroom  Organization  and  Control,   Chapters  XV, 

XVII. 

Palmer,  G.  H.,  The  Ideal  Teacher. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapter  XV. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
THE  TEACHER  AS  PROBLEM-SOLVER 

RECOGNITION  OF  PROBLEMS  ;  A  WORKING  PHILOSOPHY 
OF  TEACHING;  How  TO  SOLVE  PROBLEMS 

"WHAT  have  been  the  chief  problems  in  your  work  as  a 
teacher?"  This  question  has  been  asked  again  and  again 
by  the  author  during  interviews  with  candidates  for  teach- 
ing positions.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  the  teacher  has  at 
first  looked  blankly  at  the  questioner  and  then  replied  some- 
what doubtfully :  "I  have  always  gotten  along  all  right," 
or,  "Oh!  I  have  had  no  trouble  with  discipline,  if  that  is 
what  you  mean." 

How  amazing !  A  person  who  has  been  engaged  in  one 
of  the  most  complicated  and  difficult  undertakings  in  the 
world  has  met  no  problems !  His  eyes  have  been  open  but 
unseeing.  The  physician  has  a  problem,  often  many 
problems,  in  every  case.  The  automobile  mechanic  has 
all  sorts  of  problems  in  the  cars  which  are  brought  to  him 
for  adjustment.  The  housewife  has  problems  of  costs, 
of  economy  of  time,  of  relations  with  servants.  And  the 
teacher  has  problems  — •  multitudes  of  them  —  if  he  will 
but  learn  to  recognize  them.  Every  child  offers  a  whole 
series  of  problems.  There  are  problems  in  the  course  of 
study  and  in  methods  of  teaching.  Many  parents  are 
harder  to  deal  with  than  the  hardest  exercises  in  algebra. 
The  principal  himself  is  often  a  puzzle. 

351 


352        THE  TEACHER  AS  PROBLEM-SOLVER 

The  trouble  is  that  most  of  us,  whether  teachers  or  candle- 
stick makers  or  plain  citizens,  have  never  learned  to  take 
the  problem  attitude.  We  are  not  scientific.  We  do  most 
things  according  to  habit  or  fashion.  When  things  go  wrong, 
we  growl,  or  complain  of  our  hard  luck,  or  find  fault  with 
the  other  fellow.  We  regard  a  difficulty  not  as  a  challenge 
to  our  ability  but  as  a  misfortune  for  which  we,  at  least, 
are  not  to  blame. 

The  scientific  person,  the  problem-solver,  has  a  clear 
purpose.  Obstacles  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  purpose 
are  not  enemies  or  nuisances  but  facts.  His  job  is  to  study 
them,  to  discover  the  best  means  of  overcoming  them.  In 
every  walk  of  life  we  need  more  problem-solvers.  We  need 
them  especially  in  teaching,  because  our  present  procedure 
in  that  field  is  so  terribly  unscientific,  so  dependent  on  rule- 
of-thumb  and  fashion  and  untested  opinion. 

THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  OF  LEARNING  TO  TEACH 

There  is  much  truth  in  the  old  adage,  "experience  is  the 
best  teacher."  If  taken  as  the  sole  guide,  experience  is  a 
slow  and  bungling  instructor  and  is  often  wrong.  Teachers 
who  work  everything  out  for  themselves,  neglecting  the 
counsel  of  those  who  have  been  over  the  road,  and  shutting 
their  eyes  to  the  visions  pointed  out  by  the  leaders  whose 
sight  is  exceptionally  keen,  waste  endless  time  for  them- 
selves and  their  pupils.  They  spend  their  lives  in  hard  work, 
much  of  which  is  expended  in  the  wrong  direction,  and  fail 
to  attain  a  standard  of  accomplishment  which  some  had 
reached  before  they  began.  Furthermore,  they  are  almost 
sure  to  acquire  strong  convictions  which  are  false.  Anyone 


THE   PROBLEM  METHOD  353 

who  has  attended  educational  conventions  knows  that 
teachers  of  long  experience  often  argue  passionately  on 
opposite  sides  of  a  question,  when  obviously  both  cannot 
be  right.  Nevertheless,  the  attempt  to  prepare  for  teach- 
ing or  to  improve  one's  work  as  a  teacher  by  filling  one's 
mind  with  principles  and  rules  of  practice,  not  associated 
with  concrete  situations,  is  usually  very  ineffective. 

The  trouble  seems  to  be  that  when  one  reads  or  hears 
some  bit  of  wisdom  which  is  the  outcome  of  numerous 
experiences  on  the  part  of  the  writer  or  speaker,  but  which 
calls  forth  no  definite  applications  in  the  mind  of  the  reader 
or  listener,  it  lies  isolated  in  the  latter's  mind,  like  an 
elaborate  piece  of  furniture  in  a  barely  equipped  house  — 
of  no  present  use  and  unrelated  to  the  rest  of  the  furnish- 
ings. It  is  put  away  for  future  use  and  is  usually  forgotten. 
Even  when  the  occasion  presents  itself  for  the  proper 
employment  of  the  article  the  owner  may  not  recognize 
the  opportunity,  having  no  backgound  of  experiences  in 
which  it  has  served  a  similar  purpose.  On  the  other  hand, 
an  article  which  has  been  obtained  to  meet  a  real  present 
need  becomes  a  part  of  one's  life  and  is  often  found  to  be 
serviceable  in  ways  which  were  not  anticipated. 

The  author  has  often  visited  the  classrooms  of  young 
teachers  who  had  graduated  from  excellent  normal  schools 
but  whose  practice  was  not  at  all  in  accord  with  the  prin- 
ciples which  they  had  studied.  They  had  met  practical 
situations  which  the  preparatory  course  had  not  made 
familiar  to  them.  The  principles  which  they  had  studied 
did  not  seem  to  fit  the  conditions.  Instead  of  learning  to 
adapt  the  principles  to  the  new  situations,  they  had  shelved 
the  principles  and  acquired,  through  the  method  of  trial 

E.    T.    PROB. 2? 


354        THE  TEACHER  AS  PROBLEM-SOLVER 

and  error  or  by  copying  other  teachers,  a  technic  of  teach- 
ing which  would  work.  The  ideals  of  the  normal  school 
had  been  laid  aside  for  use  under  different  conditions. 
In  the  meantime  bad  habits  of  teaching  were  becoming 
fixed. 

It  would  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  novice  if  he  could 
obtain  his  preliminary  training  as  apprentice  to  an  expert 
practitioner,  who  would  guide  him  in  his  dealing  with 
practical  problems,  aid  him  in  mastering  principles  which 
furnish  the  key  to  their  solution,  and  show  him  how  to  find 
in  educational  literature  the  light  which  he  needs  in  order 
to  understand  and  deal  with  his  present  difficulties.  The 
beginner  would  then  be  learning  by  experience.  What  he 
learned  would  not  be  isolated  rules  or  principles  but  knowl- 
edge associated  with  concrete  classroom  situations.  It 
would  not  be  a  veneer,  connected  with  normal  school  pro- 
fessors and  examinations,  but  a  part  of  his  daily  experience 
with  Johnny  Jones  and  Mrs.  Smith. 

Such  an  ideal  plan  is  probably  impractical.  We  have 
not  enough  practitioners  with  "the  root  of  the  matter  in 
them"  to  tram  the  new  members.  Teachers  must  obtain 
much  of  their  preliminary  training  in  large  groups  before 
they  begin  to  teach.  Nevertheless,  it  is  possible,  I 
think,  to  change  the  method  of  study  so  as  to  gain  some  of 
the  advantages  of  the  experience  method  of  learning. 

The  person  who  desires  to  fit  himself  for  success  as  a 
teacher  cannot  usually  begin  by  attempting  to  teach  a 
class,  but  he  need  not  begin  at  the  other  end  by  trying  to 
absorb  knowledge  of  education  in  the  form  of  general  prin- 
ciples and  precepts  v.'hich  have  for  him  no  concrete  reality. 
Will  it  not  be  worth  while  for  him  to  face  problems  of  just 


THE   PROBLEM   METHOD  355 

the  sort  which  he  will  be  sure  to  meet  when  he  begins  to 
teach  ?  He  has  an  imagination  and,  while  no  statement  of 
a  problem  can  take  the  place  of  the  real  thing,  it  may  put 
him  in  a  state  of  mind  similar  to  that  in  which  he  should 
face  his  pupils.  He  has  before  him  a  real  situation.  He  is 
asked  what  he  would  do.  He  blunders  and  makes  unwise 
proposals,  just  as  in  practice  he  will  blunder  and  do  unwise 
things,  but  the  questioning  of  the  instructor  and  the  criti- 
cism of  his  classmates  will  help  him  to  see  where  he  is  wrong. 
When  he  is  asked  to  explain  why  he  proposes  a  certain  course 
of  action,  it  will  appear  that  he  has  more  or  less  hazy  ideas 
about  the  purpose  of  education  or  the  phenomena  of  child 
development,  which  discussion  in  connection  with  the  con- 
crete problem  will  correct  and  make  more  definite.  Thus 
principles  will  be  acquired  which  are  not  mere  words,  but 
beliefs  which  are  connected  with  real  cases. 

Even  teachers  of  experience  will  agree  that  often,  when 
they  read  educational  books  without  a  specific  purpose 
in  view,  not  much  of  the  material  remains  long  in  the 
mind  in  a  form  definite  enough  to  influence  their  teaching. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  a  teacher  consults  a  book  in  order 
to  obtain  help  in  the  solution  of  a  teaching  problem,  and, 
having  found  what  he  wants,  immediately  puts  it  to  use,  he 
is  more  likely  to  remember  what  he  has  learned  and  to  use 
it  again. 

To  sum  up  the  foregoing  paragraphs,  the  most  effective 
method,  for  most  people,  in  learning  to  teach,  as  in  learning 
to  do  anything  else,  is  to  begin  with  concrete  problems, 
through  these  to  acquire  general  principles,  and  then  to 
make  use  of  these  principles  until  action  in  accordance 
with  them  becomes  habitual. 


THE  TEACHER  AS  PROBLEM-SOLVER 

VALUE  OF  A  WORKING  PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION 

We  have  explained  the  advantage  of  beginning  with 
concrete  cases,  but  if  every  situation  which  arises  is  regarded 
as  a  separate  problem,  we  shall  make  little  progress.  It 
has  been  said  that  if  we  had  not  the  power  of  forming 
habits,  it  would  take  us  half  a  day  to  put  on  our  clothing 
and  the  other  half  to  remove  it.  It  is  equally  true  that  a 
teacher  who  failed  to  reduce  much  of  his  conduct  in  the 
classroom  to  habitual  action,  and  to  acquire  general  prin- 
ciples to  guide  him  in  meeting  the  multitude  of  situations 
which  confront  him  in  the  course  of  a  day,  would  accomplish 
little  and  would  soon  be  worn  out. 

It  is  the  new  situation  which  calls  for  treatment  as  a 
problem.  This  should  be  studied  carefully  until  the  best 
solution  is  gained,  but  out  of  the  study  should  come  the 
power  of  meeting  quickly  and  confidently  other  situations 
as  they  arise.  It  is  not  merely  a  precedent  which  should 
be  acquired,  for  there  are  as  many  bad  precedents  as  good. 
It  is  rather  a  principle  or  set  of  principles,  which  the  study  of 
the  problem  has  made  clear  and  explicit,  and  which  will 
henceforth  be  a  familiar  beacon  in  voyaging  upon  unfamiliar 
waters. 

We  are  prone  to  act  impulsively,  without  clear,  con- 
sistent reasons  for  our  actions.  These  cases  later  plague  us 
as  precedents.  We  are  charged  with  being  unjust  or 
vacillating.  We  promote  one  pupil  and  "flunk"  another 
without  having  reasons  which  carry  conviction  even  to 
ourselves. 

Sometimes  we  acquire  very  strong  convictions  without 
an  adequate  basis  for  our  faith.  We  believe  in  the  Austrian 


A   WORKING   PHILOSOPHY    OF    TEACHING  357 

method  of  subtraction,  in  the  value  of  Latin  for  all  pupils, 
or  in  suspension  as  a  punishment  for  truants,  and  yet 
cases  arise  which  we  have  to  treat  as  exceptions. 

The  trouble  is  that  our  ideas,  beliefs,  and  practices  are  a 
jumble  of  more  or  less  unrelated  elements,  gamed  from 
experience  or  from  books  or  people  in  whom  we  have  con- 
fidence. They  are  not  knit  together  by  big  fundamental 
ideas  about  our  work,  which  we  have  thought  through  and 
made  the  framework  of  our  thinking  and  doing.  Our 
views  are  full  of  inconsistencies  which  we  have  never 
straightened  out.  We  believe  them  and  hold  to  them. 
If  we  are  challenged,  we  dodge. 

The  greatest  boon  which  a  teacher  can  possess,  for  his 
peace  of  mind  and  his  professional  success,  is  a  consistent 
philosophy  of  education,  to  which  he  has  given  his  best 
thought  and  which  rules  his  conduct.  Such  a  philosophy 
will  not  be  an  unchanging  belief,  for  experiences  which  are 
inconsistent  with  it  will  force  the  teacher  to  modify  it.  If 
he  grows,  it  will  become  richer  as  he  becomes  older  and 
wiser,  but,  as  far  as  it  goes,  it  fits  his  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence. There  are  no  spots  of  which  he  is  aware  which  are 
mental  aliens. 

The  teacher  who  becomes  a  problem-solver  will  have  to 
make  up  his  mind  as  to  the  purpose  of  education,  and  no 
solution  will  satisfy  him  which  is  not  consistent  with  this 
purpose.  He  will  seek  constantly  to  know  more  about  the 
facts  of  child  nature  and  the  needs  of  society  and  will  mold 
his  philosophy  of  education  and  his  methods  of  teaching  to 
fit  them.  As  he  meets  new  situations,  he  will  make  use  of 
the  principles  which  he  has  already  acquired  and  will  fit 
his  new  principles  into  the  growing  structure. 


358  THE    TEACHER   AS    PROBLEM-SOLVER 

How  TO  SOLVE  PROBLEMS 

If  one  would  become  a  problem-solver,  one  must  think 
for  one's  self.  Accepting  statements  which  one  reads  or 
hears,  without  considering  the  facts  in  the  case  or  the  reasons 
for  the  statements,  is  not  thinking.  One  must  learn  to 
weigh  evidence  and  to  test  conclusions. 

Much  of  the  mental  activity  which  passes  for  thinking 
consists  in  devising  arguments  to  bolster  up  a  belief  which 
one  has  adopted  without  any  thoroughgoing  consideration 
and  which  one  is  unwilling  to  abandon.  Almost  everyone, 
if  he  considers  conscientiously  the  basis  of  his  political 
allegiance,  will  agree  that  he  has  not  a  consistent,  unassail- 
able basis  for  his  belief.  He  is  an  ardent  Republican  or  a 
devoted  Democrat.  An  argument  by  a  supporter  of  the 
other  party  seems  to  him  silly  or  false.  It  makes  him  angry 
to  read  an  editorial  on  the  other  side.  Anything  which  is 
said  or  written  in  favor  of  his  candidate  or  his  party,  or 
against  the  other  candidate  or  party,  pleases  him  and  is 
accepted  as  gospel.  The  fact  is  that  he  is  not  looking  for 
the  truth.  He  knows  the  truth  in  advance  and  is  almost 
ready  to  fight  anything  or  anybody  that  opposes  it. 

The  same  sort  of  "thinking"  is  common  enough  in  the 
educational  world.  A  teacher  becomes  an  adherent  cf 
"supervised  study."  He  puts  it  into  practice  and  at  once 
notices  a  great  improvement.  Any  criticism  of  the  plan 
only  makes  him  firmer  in  his  conviction.  Favorable  results 
are  attributed  to  the  new  method.  Shortcomings  are 
explained  as  the  effect  of  adverse  conditions.  Another 
teacher  is  unfavorably  impressed  when  he  first  hears  of 
"supervised  study."  Perhaps  a  friend  teaching  in  another 


HOW    TO    SOLVE    PROBLEMS  359 

system  has  remarked  that  the  method  is  a  failure.  Our 
teacher  opposes  its  introduction,  points  out  all  the  objec- 
tions which  he  can  think  of,  and  interprets  the  good  results 
reported  as  accidental  or  due  to  other  causes  than  the 
method  itself.  Both  teachers  are  fooling  themselves. 
They  are  not  trying  to  solve  a  problem  but  to  support  a 
conviction  acquired  in  a  more  or  less  accidental  way. 

The  true  problem-solver  does  not  start  with  a  bias  but 
with  an  open  mind.  He  is  ready  to  consider  any  suggestion 
which  comes  to  him,  but  only  as  something  to  be  tested. 
He  asks  himself  constantly  "Why?"  He  will  discard  an 
idea  which  seemed  clever,  if  a  fair  test  shows  that  it  will 
not  work.  He  will  welcome  criticism  and  will  be  critical 
himself  of  what  seems  at  first  to  be  a  real  discovery. 

To  illustrate  the  point,  let  us  suppose  that  a  teacher  has 
reported  that  a  neighboring  school  has  introduced  a  plan 
of  supervised  study.  Home  study  is  abandoned,  the  periods 
are  lengthened,  and  each  teacher  is  expected  to  devote  half 
the  period  to  supervision  of  pupils  in  preparing  the  new 
lesson.  The  teacher  reporting  the  plan  is  enthusiastic 
about  it  and  urges  that  it  be  adopted.  The  problem- 
solving  teacher  will  not  immediately  take  sides  and  offer 
superficial  arguments  for  his  position.  He  will  suggest 
that  the  matter  be  studied.  Perhaps  a  committee  will  be 
appointed  to  visit  the  other  school,  observe  the  work  and 
talk  with  teachers  and  principal.  On  his  return,  he  will 
report  as  chairman  of  the  committee  what  he  has  learned 
about  the  plan.  If,  as  is  probable,  he  has  found  that  there 
are  valid  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the  question,  he  may 
conclude  that  the  method  is  not  a  satisfactory  solution  of 
the  problem  of  teaching  pupils  to  study,  and  will  give  his 


360        THE  TEACHER  AS  PROBLEM-SOLVER 

reasons  for  advising  against  a  change,  or  he  may  consider 
it  promising  enough  to  be  given  a  careful  trial  in  one  class. 
If  the  decision  is  adverse,  our  teacher  will  seek  for  some 
other  solution  of  the  problem.  If  a  trial  is  decided  upon, 
he  will  help  to  devise  a  method  of  testing  the  effect  of  the 
new  plan  in  comparison  with  the  prevailing  method. 

CONCLUSION 

The  aim  of  this  book  has  been  to  help  teachers  to  recog- 
nize their  problems,  to  work  them  out,  to  formulate  prin- 
ciples, and  to  organize  these  principles  into  a  working 
philosophy  of  education  —  in  short,  to  become  professional, 
problem-solving  teachers.  Whether  this  aim  has  been 
realized  must  be  left  to  the  reader's  judgment. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Norsworthy,  N.,  How  to  Teach,  Chapter  VII. 
La  Rue,  D.  W.,  Psychology  for  Teachers,  Chapter  XII. 
McMurry,  F.  M.,  How  to  Study,  Chapter  IX. 
Moore,  E.  C.,  What  is  Education  ?  Chapter  I. 


INDEX 

Numbers  in  heavy-faced  type  refer  to  problems  for  which  solutions  are  given  in  the 
text;  numbers  in  italics  refer  to  problems  which  arc  merely  stated,  to  be  solved  by  the 
reader;  numbers  in  ordinary  type  relcr  to  pages. 


Ability  of  pupils,  variations  in :  see 
Individual  Differences. 

Administrative  officers,  relations  with : 
autocratic  superintendent,  183-269; 
conscientious  principal,  179-251 ;  con- 
flict of  authority,  186-273;  coopera- 
tion, 794-274,  795-274;  criticism, 
179-251;  disapproval  of  officer's 
procedure,  190-274,  792-274,  793- 
274;  discipline,  17-34,  18-35,  32-42, 
34-51,  52-57;  easy  principal,  179- 
251;  factional  controversy,  167- 
237;  frankness,  179-251;  going 
over  superintendent's  head,  180-253  ; 
new  assignments,  181-263,  797-271, 
T05-275,  228-318;  opposition  to 
superintendent,  180-255,  189-271, 
196-274;  personal  problems,  166- 
229;  preparation  for  opening  school, 
140-202;  principles,  272  ;  promotion, 
126-176,  140-202;  release  from  con- 
tract, 182-264  ;  resentment  over  sup- 
posed personal  injury,  187-273 ; 
sending  pupils  to  principal,  27-39, 
184-273,  7  .$'5-273;  suspicion  of 
prejudice,  188-275  ;  teacher  who  asks 
favors,  799-275  ;  teacher  who  is  not 
reappointed,  797-275. 

Aims,  see  Purpose. 

/:lgcbra,  value  of,  07-113. 

Americanization,  216-303. 

Appreciation:  of  beauty,  179-165;  of 
music,  66-76,  of  poetry,  106-150. 

Arithmetic :  correcting  individual 
weaknesses,  105-146;  in  first  grade, 
72-95,  74-112;  long  division,  69-78; 
number  combinations,  727-166; 
variation  of  ability  in,  728-182; 
wrong  type  of  seat  work,  144-210. 


Board  of  Education :    appeal  of  organ- 
izations to,  84-114  ;  appeal  of  parents 


to,  (5-27,  #3-114,  214-296,  227-316; 
appeal  of  teachers  to,  9-28,  167-237, 
180-255,  7<?9-274;  cooperation  of 
teachers  with,  £-27,  762-227;  male 
teachers,  231-331 ;  teachers'  salaries, 
231-331- 
Boy  Scouts,  231-331. 

Child's  attitude:   principles,  73 

Child  nature:  appetite,  158-227;  boy 
problem,  231-331;  bully,  40-54; 
first  grade  children,  72-95  ;  girl  who 
is  "boy  crazy",  56-54,  imagination, 
3<S~54 ;  instinctive  dislike,  55-70 ; 
64-76,  68-77  :  kindergarten  children, 
31-41 ;  older  boys  will  not  tell  on  each 
other,  34-51,  47-54;  principles,  53; 
pugnacity,  32—42,  37-54  ;  resentment 
toward  injustice,  17-34,  20-38 ;  re- 
sponse to  confidence,  52-57;  self- 
conscious  child,  35-54  ;  sullen  child, 
1-13  ;  tattling,  37-54,  4-2-55  ;  teasing, 
32-42  ;  timid  child,  4^-56. 

Citizenship,  training  for:  cooperation 
of  paients  and  pupils  needed,  215- 
2QQ,  1:6-303;  democratic  attitude, 
55-70;  fire  prevention,  118;  health, 
155-220;  high  school  curriculum, 
#2-T.T,<;  many  children  leave  school 
too  early,  89-122,  216-303;  ma- 
terial for  third  grade,  92-132;  value 
of  history,  71-91.  See  also  Self- 
direction. 

College  entrance  requirements,  17. 

Compulsory  education,  216-303. 

Cooperation :  between  teachers,  200— 
277;  with  administrative  officers, 
167-237,  180-255,  181-260,  705-27-1  ; 
vith  parents,  153-215,  214-206, 
215-209,  217-308;  with  pupils,  17- 
31.  18-35,  33-45,  34-U.  104-144, 
105-146;  747-210;  with  supervisors, 


361 


362 


INDEX 


166-229,  167-237,  168-244,  775-249, 
776-249,  777-249. 

Corporal  punishment,  see  Punishment. 

Criticism :  by  administrative  officers, 
179-251,  7S6-273;  by  educators, 
£0-113,  #'-113;  by  parents,  6-27, 
83-114,  S7-HS,  9<5-i33,  153-215, 
217-308,  2JO-ji6,  2.27-316;  by 
pupils,  204-29,5 ;  by  supervisors, 
73-103,  727-166,  7.79-211,  167-2,57, 
770-248;  by  teachers,  70-86,  72-95. 
86-115,  99-133,  125-172,  126-176, 
152-212,  166-229,  176-237,  168-244, 
770-248,  774-249,  77^-249,  1 80 
255,  183-269,  7.95-273,  7^9-274, 
705-274,  200-277,  202-284,  203-280, 

205-293,      27O-294,        -II~294,       272- 

294;  of  administration,  126-176, 
183-269,  7<?o-274,  205-293,  270-294; 
of  administrative  officers,  180-255, 
185-273,  703-274  ;  of  course  of  study, 
70-86,  72-95,  80-113,  81-113,  ('3- 
114,  86-115,  87-115,  9(5-133,  oo- 
133;  of  examinations,  72-103,  277- 
294;  of  method,  727-166,  200-277, 
217-308;  of  pupils,  125-172;  of 
school,  207-293,  220-316;  of  super- 
visors, 152-212,  166-229,  168-224, 
7-70-248,  774-249,  77^-249;  of 
teachers,  6-27,  140-211,  153-215, 
170-248,  179-251,  186-273,  202-284, 

2O3-286,       204-293,       272-294,       227- 

316;   of  textbooks,  7-91. 
Current  events,  03-132. 
Course  of  study,  see  Subject  matter. 
Curriculum,  see  Subject  matter. 

Differentiation  in  course  of  study : 
arguments  pro  and  con,  89-122; 
primary  grades,  72-95 ;  grammar 
grades,  124-170;  junior  high  school, 
98-133  ;  high  school,  2-16,  95-132, 
125-172,  732-183;  different  en- 
vironments, 700-133  ;  obstacles,  707- 
133  ;  science  for  boys  and  girls,  97- 
133;  talented  pupils,  737-183,  734- 
184. 

Diploma:  basis  of  award,  2-16;  signi- 
ficance, 1 8. 

Discipline  :    beginner's  difficulties,  202- 


284  ;  betting,  34-51,  65-76 ;  boy  who 
hates  school,  16-32,  62-76;  boy  who 
won't  try,  77-28;  bully,  40-54; 
carelessness,  23-39  ;  cheating,  20-40, 
54-67,  61-75 ;  child  who  interferes 
with  others,  2^-39 ;  control  of 
instinctive  behavior,  32-43 ;  co- 
operation with  principal,  184-273, 
185-273,  186-273 ;  disorderly  class, 
17-34.  18-35.  '9-38,  27-38,  27-39,  57- 
56;  fighting,  37-54;  girl  who  is  "boy 
crazy,"  36-54  ;  idleness,  140-202  ;  in- 
jury of  school  property,  24-39,  43~ 
55,  52-57,  63-76  ;  intolerance,  55-70 ; 
lazy,  impudent  truant,  1-13  ;  lying, 
3^-54  ;  impudence,  50-75  ;  inatten- 
tion, 49-56;  probable  culprit,  20-38, 
30-40;  restless  child,  25-39;  self- 
conscious  child,  35-54 ;  selfish  child, 
31-41;  smoking,  57-75;  stubborn 
pupil,  56-74 ;  talking  out,  33-45, 
46-55  ;  tattling,  37-54,  42-55  ',  tardi- 
ness, 15-31,22-39;  timid  child,  48-56. 

Drawing,  7  #-113,  719-165,  131-183. 

Dull  pupils,  73-29,  183-269. 

Economy  of  time  :  difficulty  in  covering 
course  of  study,  70-86,  137-186; 
eliminating  waste,  138-190  ;  living  by 
program,  139-193  ;  misdirected  effort, 
746-210,  747-210,  749-211;  prepa- 
ration in  advance,  140-202,  745- 
210;  principles,  208  ;  teacher  who  is 
"swamped"  with  work,  139-193, 
747-209,  148-211;  waste  of  pupils' 
time,  742-209,  743-209,  144-209, 
750—211. 

Education,  purpose  of,  25. 

Efficiency:  definition,  757-211;  prin- 
ciples, 194;  scientific  method,  231, 
331  ;  system,  I39-IQ3- 

English  composition :  correction  of 
errors,  77^-165,  74^-211;  drill,  777- 
165;  foreign  children,  123-167; 
grammar,  4-21  ;  literary  society, 
55-70;  real  problems,  73-103. 

English  literature :  aims,  73-103,  106— 
150;  examination,  73-103  ;  teaching 
a  poem,  106-150;  testing  mastery  of 
ideas,  73-103. 


INDEX 


363 


Examinations :  affect  teacher's  freedom 
in  choice  of  subject  matter,  go ; 
cheating,  61-75 1  criticising  an  ex- 
amination, 73-103. 

Experience :  measuring  the  value  of, 
231-331 ;  learning  by  experience,  352. 

Experiment :  developing  self-direction, 
200-277  ;  economizing  lime,  140-202  ; 
effect  of  rapid  promotion,  126-176; 
overcoming  differences  between  high 
school  and  elementary  school  teachers, 
203-286;  "selling"  education,  231- 
331- 

Expulsion,  1-13. 

Fire  prevention,  88-116. 

First  grade:  arithmetic,  74-112;  course 
of  study,  72-05  ;  developing  initiative, 
58-75;  relation  to  kindergarten,  o/- 
131- 

Foreign  children :  attitude  of  other 
pupils,  68-77 ;  language  handicap, 
123-167;  modified  course  for,  100- 
I33J  parental  influence,  216-303. 

Frankness :  between  teacher  and  ad- 
ministrative officer,  179-251,  180- 
255,  184-273 ,  between  teacher  and 
supervisor,  166-229,  167-237,  777- 
249,  774-249. 

French,  value  of,  75-113. 

Geography:  course  of  study,  90-131; 
essential  facts,  70-86,  £3-114;  proj- 
ects, 70-86  ;  purpose  of  studying,  88 ; 
socialized  recitation,  103-138;  suit- 
able assignment  for  given  grade,  70- 
86 ;  use  of  textbook,  70-86. 

Gossip:     167-237,    180-255,    206-293, 

2/0-294,  21 1-294,  2/2-294. 

Grading  of  pupils:  5-27,73-28,  125- 
172,  126-176,  150-183,  183-269. 

Graduation,  2-16. 

Grammar:  aim  in  teaching,  no;  tests, 
1 1 1 ;  value  in  elementary  school,  4- 
21. 

Habits:  breaking  bad  habits,  42-55 
1047-56,  40-56,  105-146;  drill,  50-56, 
57-56;  health,  155-220,  158-227; 
principles  of  habit  formation,  53 ; 


pupils'  habits  reflect  teacher's  prac- 
tice, 74-29,  18-35,  27-38,  103-138. 

Health:  children's  dress,  154-217; 
classroom  hygiene,  152-2 1 2 ;  coopera- 
tion with  parents,  153-215;  effect  of 
rapid  promotion,  178;  exercise,  154- 
217;  of  teachers,  139-193,  750-227 
to  763-228;  principles,  226;  sleep, 
154-217;  teacher's  example,  154- 
217;  teacher's  responsibility,  152- 
212,  154-217,  764-228;  translating 
knowledge  into  habits,  154-217,  765- 
228. 

liigh  School:  course  of  study,  71-91, 
76-112,  70-113,  #7-113,  82-114, 
£5-114,  £7-115,  88-1 16,  89-122,  05- 
132,  07-133,  09-133;  discipline,  29- 
40,  34-51,  J<5-54,  67-75,  £5-76,  227- 
317;  examinations,  73-103;  extra- 
curricular activities,  79^-275 ;  func- 
tion of,  17,  18,  73-29,  125-172; 
graduation,  2-16;  ideals,  55-70,  66- 
76,  6£-77 ;  individual  differences, 
125-172,  729-182,  732-183;  men 
teachers,  231-331;  methods,  74-29, 
71-91,  104-144,  106-150,  770-164, 
7/4-164,  722-166;  not  understood 
by  elementary  teachers,  203-286; 
teacher's  attitude,  73-28,  125-172, 
229-322;  withdrawal  from,  7-27, 
16-32. 

History  :  purpose  of  teaching,  71-91 ; 
selection  of  material,  71-91 ;  wrong 
method,  709-163. 

Home  and  school  association,  217-308, 
225-316. 

Home  environment :  degrading  home, 
1-13;  foreign  home,  216-303;  i:n- 
hygienic  home,  153-215;  teacher 
should  understand,  13,  123-167. 

Home  study,  138-190. 

Ideals :  control  of  conduct,  53-60 ; 
cooperation  among  teachers,  201-281, 
203-286;  democracy,  55-70,  64-76, 
6<?-77  ;  fair-play,  54-67  ;  good  taste, 
66-76;  health,  154-217,  155-220, 
158-227,  764-228;  honesty,  54-67, 
67-65 ;  principles  relating  to,  74 ; 
professional  spirit,  230-326;  self- 


364 


INDEX 


control,  32-42,  33-45,  67-76; 
teacher's  chief  duty  to  develop,  66, 
66-76 ;  need  of  common  ideals,  200- 
277 ;  use  of  history  in  developing, 
71-91 :  use  of  literature  in  develop- 
ing, 106-150 

Individual  differences :  group  teaching, 
132-183 ;  foreign  children,  123-167; 
in  arithmetic,  105-146,  777-16.4, 
722-182;  in  handwork,  727-182; 
in  mathematics,  7/0-164;  in  music 
and  drawing,  75^183;  in  reading, 
138-190;  in  science,  729-182;  in 
spelling,  70^-163,  72^-182;  in  tem- 
perament, 15;  mass  teaching  inef- 
fective, 124-170;  principles,  181  ; 
pupils  who  are  below  "  high  school 
standard,"  125-172;  rapid  promo- 
tion, 126-176;  relation  to  promoti)n, 
150-183,  tal.-nt.d  pupil,  73^-184; 
variation  in  lesson  assignments,  131- 
183  ;  variation  in  a  single  grade,  72- 
95,  124-170 

Industrial  arts,  75-112,  102-134. 

Interest :  arousing  interest  in  overcom- 
ing deficiencies  in  arithmetic,  105- 
146;  developing  interest  in  poetry, 
106-150;  relation  of  repstition  to, 
117;  more  effective  than  dominati  >n, 
214-296;  variation  in  children's 
interests  calls  for  differentiation  of 
subject  matter,  128;  test  of  ap- 
propriateness of  subject  matter,  4-21. 

Junior  high  school,  05-133. 

Kindergarten :  developing  initiative, 
5S-75;  importance  of,  8-27  ;  punish- 
ment, 2(9-39;  spoiled  child,  31-41; 
teaching  fire  prevention,  117;  timid 
child,  45-56;  transition  to  first 
grade,  07-131. 

Language :  correcting  errors  of  speech, 
•15*55,  J7<S-i6s;  grammar  in  the 
elementary  school,  4-21  ;  problem 
of  the  foreign  child,  123-167;  rules 
and  definitions  ineffective,  777-165. 
See  also  English  composition. 

Latin,  value  of,  £0-113. 

Leaving    school :     distaste    for    school, 


16-32 ;  exploitation  of  children,  216- 
303;  for  financial  advantage,  7-27; 
from  the  high  school,  725-172,  231- 
33 1  ;  variation  in  length  of  school 
career  calls  for  differentiation  in 
course  of  study,  128. 

Lesson  assignments :  pupil  partici- 
pation, 104-144;  too  much  written 
work,  /.//-2OQ;  variation  in  accord- 
ance with  individual  needs,  124-170, 
732-183,  137-186,  138-190. 

Lesson  plans,  69-78,  78-113,  95-132, 
107-155,  144-210,  765-228,  775-249. 

Manners,  training  in,  217-308. 

Manual  training,  see  Industrial  Arts. 

Marks:  claim  of  unfairness,  55-54; 
threat  of  "zero,"  44-55;  unre- 
liability, 231-331;  use  as  incentive, 
722-166. 

Mathematics  :  wrong  method,  110-164, 
750-211.  See  also  Arithmetic  and 
A Igebra . 

Measurement:  of  ability,  126-176,  183- 
269;  of  results  of  teaching,  231-331. 

Memory  :  avoid  examinations  which  are 
exclusive  tests  of,  73-103 ;  value  of 
forgotten  knowledge,  £5-1 14. 

Men  teachers,  231-331. 

Methods :  conflict  of  opinion  in  re- 
gard to,  166-229,  772-249;  drill, 
105-146;  English  literature,  106- 
150;  experiment  the  best  test  of, 
166-229;  geography,  70-86;  group 
teaching,  124-170;  handwork,  102- 
134;  history,  72-95;  individual 
progress,  124-170,  138-190;  prin- 
ciples, 162;  project  method,  107- 
155;  relation  to  purpose,  102-134, 
770-165,  720-165;  socialized  reci- 
tation, 103-138;  spelling,  70^-163; 
testing  ability  in  composition,  73- 
103  ;  transforming  the  dull  recitation, 
104-144. 

Motivation  :  in  arithmetic,  69-78,  105- 
146;  in  composition,  73-103;  in 
French,  70-113;  in  geography,  120— 
165;  in  high  school.  104-144;  lack 
of,  77-28,  16-32,  102-134,  742-209; 
wrong  motive,  275-165. 


INDEX 


365 


National  Education  Association,  230- 
326. 

Nature  study,  04-132. 

Parents,  relations  with  :  angry  parent, 
215-299,  2.30-316;  conflict  of  ideals, 
7-27,  215-299,  216-303,  218-315; 
cooperation,  16-32,  140-202,  164- 
228,  224-316;  domineering  parent, 
214-296,  217-308;  foreigners,  123- 
167,  216-303;  meddlesome  parent, 
217-308 ;  parental  indifference  to 
child's  welfare,  216-303  ;  parent  who 
accepts  child's  version,  227-316; 
parent  who  combats  school  influence, 
153-215,  214-296;  parent  who  con- 
demns school  methods,  #3-114,  87- 
115,  1:6-165,  217-308,  222-316; 
parent  who  wants  favors,  21^-315, 
270-316,  223-316;  principles,  314; 
unreasonable  parent,  6-27,  214-296; 
when  teacher  is  in  the  wrong,  15-30, 
215-299,  226-316,  227-217. 

Parent-teacher  association,  see  Borne 
and  School  Association. 

Penmanship,  77-28,  222-316. 

Philosophy  of  education,  24,  356. 

Prejudice:  against  foreigners,  68-77; 
against  negroes,  735-184,  223-316; 
against  new  duties,  180-255,  181- 
260;  against  new  ideas,  153-215; 
against  new  methods,  9-28,  62,  732- 
J83,  733-183,  166-229,  168-244,  200- 
277;  against  new  plans,  53-60,  126- 
176,  7^0-274;  against  people,  55-70, 
201-281,  206-203,  167-237,  1.97-273, 
j5(9-273 ;  against  reduction  of  va- 
cation, 140-202,  236-349,  205-293; 
against  teachers  of  another  depart- 
ment, 203-286,  277-294;  in  favor  of 
one's  own  interests,  #0-113. 

Principal,  see  Administrative  cfficcrs. 

Principles:  general,  25;  child's  at- 
titude, self-direi-ti-in,  ideals,  73; 
child  nature  and  habit  formation,  53  ; 
economy  of  time,  208;  health,  226; 
method,  162 ;  professional  growth, 
347;  relations  with  administrative 
officers,  272 ;  relations  with  other 
teachers,  293 ;  relations  with  parents, 


314;  relations  with  supervisors,  247; 
rules  and  punishments,  37 ;  subject 
matter,  in,  131;  variation  in  pupils' 
ability,  181. 

Problems:  how  to  solve,  358  ;  learning 
to  teach  by  studying  problems,  352, 
teacher  who  has  no  problems,  235- 
349,  351- 

Professional  growth :  broadening  field 
of  interest,  228-318;  challenge  of  the 
bigger  job,  228-318;  education  as 
public  service,  231-331 ;  education  as 
a  science,  229-322,  231-331;  financ- 
ing professional  education,  231-331 ; 
"jack  of  all  trades,"  247-350;  joy  in 
teaching,  229-322;  keep  out  of  the 
ruts,  228-318;  learning  from  others, 
239-349 ;  narrow  view  of  the  subject 
specialist,  229-322;  participation  in 
professional  associations,  230-326; 
principles,  347 ;  professional  in- 
fluence, 230-326;  recognition  of 
problems,  235-349 ;  "  rule  of  thumb  " 
teacher,  223-348,  353  ;  salaries,  231- 
331 ;  standing  of  profession,  231-331 ; 
teacher  who  is  "stale,"  232-348; 
temporary  teacher,  240-350;  time 
for  professional  study,  139-193,  234- 
349,  236-349  ;  understanding  problem 
of  education,  229-322;  use  of  va- 
cations, 236-349. 

Profession  of  teaching :  calls  for  mutual 
helpfulness,  201-281 ;  depends  on 
scientific  method,  231-331 ;  requires 
evening  work,  200;  should  exert  a 
national  influence,  230-326;  stand- 
ing affected  by  teacher's  conduct, 
182-264.  See  also  Professional 
growth. 

Projects:  fire  prevention,  121;  for 
fifth  grade,  168-244  ;  for  first  grade, 
95;  health  club,  225  ;  in  geography, 
90.  168-244;  in  handwork,  137;  in 
self-control,  33-45,  47-5^,  52-57; 
study  club,  104-144. 

Project  method :  what  it  is,  107-155; 
essential  idea  purpose,  157;  is  it  a 
method?  158;  supervisor's  part, 
168-244;  teacher's  part,  159,  168- 
244. 


366 


INDEX 


Promotion:  criticism  of  teacher's 
judgment,  193-274;  factor  of  ma- 
turity, 126-176;  of  backward  pupils, 
5-27,  183-269  ;  parents'  complaints, 
6-27,  220-316;  rapid  promotion, 
124-170,  126-176,  138-190;  relation 
to  individual  differences,  750-183 ; 
to  high  school,  125-172. 

Publicity:  newspaper  agitation,  180- 
255,  215-299;  salary  campaign,  230- 
326;  "selling"  education  to  the 
public,  231-331. 

Punishment :  avoid  enforced  idleness, 
38,  25-39,  26-39 ;  avoid  forced 
apology,  52-57,  50-75 ;  corporal 
punishment,  13,  215-299;  don't 
punish  a  whole  class,  17-34,  '£-38; 
expulsion,  13  ;  keeping  pupils  after 
school,  18-35;  principles,  38;  re- 
venge, 1-13;  should  be  just,  15-30, 
18-35,  20-38,  50-40 ;  should  fit 
offence,  21-38;  should  fit  purpose, 
15-30,  16-32,  2^-39,  20-40,  32-42, 
54-67 ;  should  not  need  frequent 
repetition,  18-35. 

Pupil's  ability,  see  Individual  differences. 

Pupil's  attitude  :  boy  who  hates  school, 
16-32,  62-76;  during  recitation, 
104-145  ;  pupil  who  doesn't  see  the 
use  of  a  requirement,  77-28;  pupil 
who  is  at  war  with  the  world,  13 ; 
toward  cheating,  54-67  ;  toward  in- 
justice, 52-57  ;  toward  other  children, 
?5-73,  64-76,  6<?-77;  toward  re- 
sponsibility, 53-60 ;  toward  telling  on 
another,  34-51.  47-54. 

Purpose:    essential  element  in  project 
method,  107-155;    guide  to  conduct, 
66,  71,  125-172,  153-215,   236,  214- 
296,    215-290;    of   course   of   stud 
137-186;    of  education,   25,  357; 
teaching  grammar,   no;    of  teachi 
handwork,     102-134;      of     teachi 
history,  71-91 ;    of  teaching  poetr  -, 
106-150. 

Rea.-'ing:  problem  of  the  foreign  child, 
I23~:'T;  selection  of  material,  7_>— 
28 ;  standards  in  first  grade,  103  : 
teacher's  reading,  4-21,  33-45,  740- 


211,       139-103,       229-322,       254-349; 

time  wasted  in  oral  reading,  138-190. 

Relations  with  other  teachers :  barrier 
between  high  school  and  elementary 
school,  203-286 ;  conference  on 
personal  problems,  10-28,  154-217, 
170-251,  229-322,230-326,  231-331; 
conference  on  school  problems,  1-13. 
2-16,  4-21,  0-28,  16-32,  53-0,5,  69- 
78,  70-86,  72-95,  88-116,  89-122, 
00-131,  103-138,  106-150,  107-155, 
126-176,  755-183,  755-184,  140-202, 
167-237,  168-244,  228-318;  coopera- 
tion, 5-27,  200-277,  275-295;  ex- 
clusive teacher,  200-293 ;  fault- 
finding, 272-294;  helping  the  begin- 
ner, 202-284 1  homesick  teacher,  208- 
293 ;  interest  in  each  other's  work, 
200-277,  202-284;  jealousy,  201- 
281,  204-293,  201-294;  opposing 
public  sentiment,  205-293  ;  partisan- 
ship, 207-293,  277-294;  prejudice, 
206—293;  principles,  292. 

Reports,  180-255. 

Resignation,  166-229,  182-264,  231- 
33i- 

Responsibility,  see  Teacher's  respon- 
sibility. 

Retardation,  5-27,  124-170,  183-269. 

Rules:  inflexible  rules  dangerous,  15- 
30,  22-39,  25-39,  principles  relating 
to,  37- 

Salaries:  attitude  of  public,  231-331; 
relation  to  demand  and  supply,  231- 
331  ;  jealousy  in  regard  to,  270-294  I 
payment  according  to  merit,  263 ; 
work  of  the  N.  E.  A.,  230-326. 

Self-control,  see  Self-direction. 

Self-direction :  devcl  pment  of,  3-20, 
32-p,  33-45,  50-54,  -^-55.  -.'7-56, 
53-60,  5'?-75,  104-144,  107-155, 
138-10^.  200-277;  more  effective 
than  duimnati.'ii,  17-34.  52~57,  60- 
75-  67-75,  ^7-76.  102-134,  .'.,-7-2 10, 
217-308;  principles,  73. 

S.-lf-reliance,  see  Self -direction. 

Socialized  recitation :  genuine  and 
counterfeit  forms  contrasted,  103- 
138;  relation  to  project  method, 
107-155- 


INDEX 


367 


Spelling:  fiction  of  the  "good  old 
days,"  217-308 ;  minimum  essentials, 
86-115;  wrong  method,  105-163. 

Standards:  "high  school  standard," 
125-172;  of  discipline,  2/2-294; 
of  promotion,  750-183 ;  proper 
standard  the  pupil's  best,  2-16; 
variable  standard,  72-95. 

Standard  tests :  use  in  improving  work 
in  arithmetic,  105-146;  use  in 
measuring  results  of  teaching,  231- 
331. 

Subject  matter:  algebra,  #7-113; 
appropriateness  of  material  for  vari- 
ous grades,  4-21,  69-78,  116,  90-131, 
02-132,  9(5-133,  00-133,  229-322; 
arithmetic,  69-78,  74-112,  77-113; 
citizenship,  #2-114,  84-114,  92-132; 
current  events,  93-132;  differentia- 
tion, 89-122,  97-133,  0,5-133;  draw- 
ing, 7#-ii3;  first  grade,  72-95,  97- 
131;  French,  70-113;  geography, 
70-86,  83-114,  90-131,  103-138, 
137-186;  high  school,  715-132,  87- 
115,95-132;  history,  71-91 ;  kinder- 
garten, 97-131;  Latin,  #0-113; 
literature,  73-103  ;  nature  study,  94- 
132;  not  an  end  in  itself,  102; 
principles  for  selection  of  material, 
119,  137-186;  principles  relating  to, 
in,  131;  reading,  72-28;  relation 
to  project  method,  107-155;  science, 
07-133,  90-133,  700-133,  707-133 ; 
spelling,  86-11$;  teacher's  responsi- 
bility for  selecting,  69-78,  71-91  ; 
value  of  forgotten  knowledge,  #5- 
114;  what  should  everybody  know? 
84-114. 

Superintendent,  see  Administrative  of- 
ficers. 

Supervised  study,  358,  350. 

Supervision,  value  of,  166-229,  178- 
249. 

Supervisors,  relations  with :  attitude 
toward  criticism,  73-103,  102-1.54. 
166-229,  770-249,  772-249;  con- 
flicting ideas,  774-164,  732-183,  733- 
183,  152-212,  166-229,  772-240; 
cooperation,  88-116,  167-237,  168 - 
244,  769-248,  772-249,  775-249,  776- 


249,  177-249;  frankness,  16^-244, 
160-248,  777-249;  in  developing  new 
work,  168—244 ;  is  supervision  nec- 
essary? 166-229,  77^-249;  jealousy 
of  supervisor,  167-237 ;  justifying 
selection  of  subject  matter,  12-28, 
76-112,  77-113,  97-133,  100-133, 
707-133 ;  misunderstanding,  168- 
244,  774-249;  principles,  247;  self- 
consciousness,  166-229;  supervisor 
who  bosses,  775-249. 

Tardiness:  of  teacher,  179-251;  rules 
and  punishments,  15-30,  22-39. 

Taxes :  public  attitude  toward  support 
of  schools,  231-331. 

Teacher:  should  be  scientific,  26,  352; 
should  have  confidence  in  himself, 
231-331 ;  should  not  be  diverted 
from  his  purpose,  214-296;  should 
not  take  a  personal  view,  26,  #-27, 
9-28,  70-28,  32-42,  153-215,  214- 
296,  215-299,  228-318;  should  set 
a  good  example,  154-217. 

Teachers :  relations  with  other.  See 
Relations  with  other  teachers. 

Teacher's  attitude :  toward  administra- 
tive officers,  179-251 ;  toward  col- 
leagues, 200-277  to  273-294  ;  toward 
criticism,  102-134,  152-212,  179-251 ; 
toward  extra-curricular  activities, 
79,5-275  ;  toward  handicapped  pupils, 
73-28,  74-29,  123-167,  125-172, 
764-228;  toward  his  professional 
career,  231-331;  toward  new  plans, 
0-28,  53-60,  126-176,  180-255,  189- 
274,  790-274;  toward  professional 
ideals,  70-28 ;  toward  pupils'  delin- 
quencies, 1-13,  34-51,  40-56,  50-75; 
toward  supervisors,  166-229,  167- 
237,  774-249;  toward  transfer,  181- 
260 ;  toward  unreasonable  parent, 
153-215,  214-296,  215-299. 

Teachers'  meetings,  13,  2-16,  53-60, 
72-95,  88-116,  107-155,  126-176, 
140-202,  200-277.  201-281. 

Teachers'  responsibility:  for  construc- 
tive criticism,  795-274;  for  con- 
tributing to  the  influence  of  the 
profession,  230-326;  for  helping  to 


368 


INDEX 


settle  a  controversy,  167-237 ;  for 
developing  self-control,  4-21 ;  for  get- 
ting a  thorough  professional  equip- 
ment, 234-349,  240-350,  241-350; 
for  health  of  children,  152-212,  757- 
227;  for  his  own  health,  150-227, 
160-227  ;  for  hygienic  conditions  of 
school,  228-163;  for  keeping  a  con- 
tract, 182-264;  for  keeping  children 
in  school,  216-303;  for  participating 
in  public  affairs,  231-331;  for  re- 
fraining from  public  criticism  of 
colleagues,  180-255;  for  reporting 
defects  to  person  responsible,  180- 
255 ;  for  selecting  subject  matter, 
12-28,69-78,  76-113;  for  setting  a 
good  example,  154-217;  for  sharing 
in  school  administration,  794-274; 
for  success  of  the  whole  school  system, 
8-27,  181-260,  228-318;  for  acquaint- 


ance with  pupils'   homes,   224-316; 

for  welfare  of  pupils,  183-260. 
Textbooks:    deficiencies  of,  69-78,  71- 

91;     selection    of,    77-113;     use    in 

geographv,  70-86. 
Time,  see  Economy  of  time. 
Transfer :    of  teacher  to  another  grade, 

7<?r-274.  228-318  ;   to  another  school, 

70-28,  76^-228,  179-251,  181-260. 
Truancy,  13. 

Variation  in  ability  of  pupils,  see 
Individual  differences. 

Visiting  schools:  to  establish  an  entente 
between  high  school  and  elementary 
school  teachers,  203-286;  to  study  a 
method,  4-21,  103-138;  teacher  who 
gains  nothing  by  visiting,  2.30-349. 

Withdrawals,  see  Leaving  school. 
Working  papers,  216-303. 


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